ONline journalist.docx

ONline journalist.docx

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ONlinejournalist

ONLINEJOURNALISTS:

FoundationsforResearchintoTheirChangingRoles

JaneB.Singer

DepartmentofJournalismandTechnicalCommunication

ColoradoStateUniversity

TableofContents

∙Abstract

∙Introduction

∙Gate-keepingTheory

∙DiffusionofInnovation

∙SociologyofNewsWork

∙SocialCohesion

∙References

∙AbouttheAuthor

Abstract

Interactivemediahavegrabbedtheattentionofcommunicationresearchersinthelatterhalfofthe1990s,butthefocustodatehasbeenprimarilyonmediaaudiencesandtheiruseofthesenewforms.Thispapersuggestsfourapproachesthatmayhelpprovidetheory-basedunderpinningsinadifferentarea:

thestudyofjournalistsandthewaysinwhichtheirrolesandjobsarechanging.Theapproachesaregate-keepingtheory;diffusionofinnovationtheory;sociologicalperspectives,particularlythoseinvolvingthesociologyofnewswork;andasomewhateclecticperspectivethatexplorestheideaofjournalismasapotentialforceofcohesioninanincreasinglyfragmentedsociety.

Introduction

Theexplosionininteractivemediaformshasgrabbedtheattentionofcommunicationscholarsinthelatterhalfofthe1990s.Thenumberofstudiesisburgeoning,andnewonesappearatasteadilyacceleratingpace.Thefocustodatehasbeenprimarilyontheaudienceforcomputer-basedmediaforms,particularlyontheusesandeffectsofthesenewmedia.Addingtoourunderstandingofcomputer-mediatedcommunicationhavebeenexplorationsofeverythingfromtheeffectsofcomputerandvideogamesonadolescents'self-perceptions[（FunkandBuchman,1996）]toaudienceperceptionsofinteractivityine-mailsenttoanetworknewsshow[（Newhagen,CordesandLevy,1995）]toawholehostofforaysintotheconstitution,implicationsandethicsofonlinecommunity（see,forexample,[Jones,1995];[BrennenandPrimeaux,1997];[Weinrich,1997]）.

Theinterestinonlineaudiencesmaybeespeciallyacutebecauseofthenatureofthesenewermediaforms:

bydefinition,interactivemediablurthelinesbetweenthereceiversandsendersofamediatedmessage.TheuseofamediumsuchastheInternetobviouslyinvolvesnotonlyactiveparticipationinthetraditionalaudiencerolesofselectingandprocessingmediamessages,butactiveparticipationincreatingthem,aswell.However,thetraditionalreceiversarenottheonlyonesprofoundlyaffectedbythischange.Thetraditionalsendersofmediamessages--thejournalists--arefacednotjustwithanewdeliverymethodbutwithwhatmaybeafundamentalshiftintheirroleinthecommunicationprocess.Howiswhatweknowas"traditional"journalismsimilartoordifferentfromonlinejournalism?

Howdoesthenatureoftheinteractivemediumaffectwhatjournalistsdo?

Thispaperwillsuggestfourfoundations,restingonexistingtheoriesandconceptualapproaches,uponwhichresearchersmightbuildinstudyingthatchangingjournalisticrole.MorrisandOgan[（1996）]haveprovidedavaluableframeworkforexplorationoftheInternetasamassmedium,outliningtheapplicationofsuchtheoriesascriticalmass,socialpresenceandmediarichness.Thispaperseekstoprovideasimilarframework,butwithanarrowerfocus:

journalistssweptupinchallengestotheirone-timefranchiseofcreatinganddeliveringmass-mediatedmessages.Newconceptualparadigmseventuallymayevolvetohelpusstudytheirrole.Butbeforewetakethatleap,wehavemuchtolearnbyusingfamiliaraidstoguideusalongnewpaths.

Gate-keepingTheory

Oneofthemosteasilyaccessibletheoriesisthejournalistasgate-keeper,arolethatclearlyseemsthreatenedbyamediuminwhichuserscanputtheirfingersonvirtuallyanybitofinformationthatintereststhem."Noothermedium,"oneobserverhassuggested,"hasevergivenindividualpeoplesuchanengagedroleinthemovementofinformationandopinionorsuchaproprietaryinterestinthemediumitself"[（Katz,1994,50）].Thoughtheterm"gatekeeper"originatedwithsociologistKurtLewin,itwasfirstapplieddirectlytojournalistsbyWhite,whostudiedthechoicesmadebyawireserviceeditoratasmallmidwesternnewspaper.

"Mr.Gates,"whoselectedarelativelylimitednumberofstoriesforpublicationandrejectedtherest,sawtoitthat"thecommunityshallhearasafactonlythoseeventswhichthenewsman,astherepresentativeofhisculture,believestobetrue"[（White,1950,390）].Subsequentstudieshaveindicatedthatthejournalist'sself-perceptionasthepersonwhodecideswhatpeopleneedtoknowisdeeplyingrained.Indeed,ithasbeensuggestedthattheidentificationanddisseminationofwhatisworthknowingisthejournalist'smostbasicandmostvitaltaskinademocraticsociety,inwhichinformationplaysacentralrole[（Janowitz,1975）].

ItwouldseemthatthenotionofgatekeepinggoesrightoutthewindowwiththeInternet.The'Net,anditsuser-friendlyWorldWideWebgraphicaloverlay,isthebestexampleyetofapostmodernmedium;itprovidestheopportunityforcreationofahighlypersonalpastiche,inwhichallimportance,allmeaningisrelativetoanindividualperspective.Userscanfindanythingtheywantonline.Theydon'tneedsomeoneelsetodothepickingandchoosing.Theydon'tneedsomeoneelsetodecidewhat'simportant.Theydon'tneedsomeoneelsetodigestandpackagetheirinformation.Theydon'tneedsomeoneelsetointerpretthatinformationforthem.Ordothey?

Gate-keepingtheorymayprovideamorevaluablebasisforstudyinthisnewmediaenvironmentthanitfirstappears."Whathappenswhenthegatekeepergoesaway?

"isnottheonlyquestiontobeasked.Itmightnotevenbethebestquestion.Althoughfewpublishedstudieshavespecificallyaddressedgate-keepingintheonlineenvironment,thereissomeevidencethatjournalistsseethatfunctionasevolvingandadaptingratherthandisappearing.AstudybySinger[（1997）]indicatespeopleinsidethenewsroomaremodifyingtheirdefinitionofthegatekeepertoincorporatenotionsofbothqualitycontrolandsense-making.Inparticular,theyseetheirroleascredibleinterpretersofanunprecedentedvolumeofavailableinformationasfundamentaltotheirvalue--eventheirsurvival--inanewmediaenvironment.HerfindingsareinlinewiththemostrecentsurveybyWeaverandWilhoit[（1996）],whofoundthatjournalistscontinuetoseetheirprimaryroleasinterpreters,ratherthanmeregatherersanddisseminators,ofinformation.

Thosefindingsraiseinterestingfollow-upquestionsforinteractivemediaresearcherstopursue.Dothegrowingnumberofjournalistsnowworkingonlinealsovaluetheinterpretiverole?

Ifso,howmighttheyseethemselvesfulfillingit?

Anotherapproachmightbetoexaminewhethertherealorperceivedneedforagate-keepingorsense-makingrole--amongbothjournalistsandmembersofthepublic--increasesordecreasesastheamountofinformationexpandsandpeopleareempoweredtomaketheirownnewsjudgments.

Althoughtheevidenceisstilllargelyanecdotal,thereissomeindicationthatonlineusers--despitemuch-publicizedexclamationsofelationattheirnewfreedomfrommediacontroloverinformation--mayactuallybelookingforsomesortofgatekeeper.Forinstance,withtheCommunicationDecencyActthrownoutasunconstitutional,oneofthehottesttopicsforInternetaccessproviderstodayishowtokeepchildrenfromseeingcertaincontentonline.Theperceivedsolution,sofar,haslargelybeenatechnologicalone:

filteringsoftwaresuchasCyberSitterorNetNannytocarryout,ineffect,editorialdecisionsaboutwhatisappropriateandwhatisnot.Itseemsthatpeopledostillwantsomeoneorsomethingtomake--orhelpthemmake--judgmentsaboutcontent.

Orconsider"knowbots,"thelittlepersonalizablepiecesofsoftwarethatwillgorootingaroundliketruffle-huntingpigsintheincomprehensible,andexponentiallyexpanding,vastnessoftheonlineuniversetofindcontentthatmatchesusers'identifiedinterests.Inadditiontohelpmakingjudgments,peoplearesearchingforhelpinfindinginformation.

Indeed,theyalsomaybelookingforhelpofamorehumannature--from,infact,theveryjournalistswhoseinfluencetheycan,iftheychoose,escapeonline.Asidefromthesearchengines,themostpopularandwidelyusedsitesontheWebincludemanyofthoseproducedbyemployeesoftraditionalmediaoutlets,fromCNNtoUSATodaytoESPN.Peopleareevenwillingtopay$49ayearforaccesstotheonlineWallStreetJournal.Inotherwords,theyareturningtotheirfavoriteselectors,organizersandpackagersofinformation--oneswhosebrandidentitytheyknowand,atleasttosomeextent,trust.MattDrudge,thepseudonymousonlinescribewhoboastsofhavingnoeditor,alsohasnocredibility.

MichaelSchudsonbeganhisrecentbook,ThePowerofNews[（1995）],byinvitingreaderstoimagineaworldinwhicheveryoneisabletodeliverinformationdirectlytoeveryoneelsethroughacomputer,aworldinwhicheveryonecanbehisorherownjournalist.Hesuggeststhatpeoplewouldquicklybecomedesperatetofigureoutwhichsourceswerelegitimateandwouldsoonbebeggingforhelpinsortingthroughtheendlessinformation.Furthermore,hesaid,theywouldprefertohavethathelpcomefromasourcewhowasatleastrelativelysavvyaboutwhatallthoseotherpeopleweretalkingabout,relativelynonpartisanandthereforerelativelytrustworthy.

Journalism,inshort,wouldprettyquicklybereinvented.

TheworldSchudsondescribesis,ofcourse,moreorlesstheworldinwhichwelive,oneinwhicheverypolitician,advertiser,hobbyistandlunaticisabletocommunicatewithusdirectlythroughourcomputers.Soperhapsitistimeto