女性主义的英文材料.docx

女性主义的英文材料.docx

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女性主义的英文材料

Feminism

Feminismisacollectionofaimedatdefining,establishing,anddefendingpolitical,economic,andsocialrightsforwomen.Inaddition,feminismseekstoestablishequalopportunitiesforwomenineducationandemployment.Afeministisa"personwhosebeliefsandbehaviorarebasedonfeminism."

whichemergedfromthesefeministmovements,aimstounderstandthenatureofgenderinequalitybyexaminingwomen'ssocialrolesandlivedexperience;ithasdevelopedtheoriesinavarietyofdisciplinesinordertorespondtoissuessuchasthesocialconstructionofsexandgender.Someoftheearlierformsoffeminismhavebeenfortakingintoaccountonlywhite,middle-class,educatedperspectives.Thisledtothecreationofethnically-specificormulticulturalistformsoffeminism.

Feministactivistscampaignfor–suchasincontractlaw,property,and–whilealsopromotingbodilyintegrity,autonomyandforwomen.Feministcampaignshavechangedsocieties,particularlyintheWest,byachieving,,,reproductiverightsforwomen（includingaccesstoand）,andtherighttoenterintocontractsandownproperty.Feministshaveworkedtoprotectwomenandgirlsfrom,,and.Theyhavealsoadvocatedforworkplacerights,including,andagainstformsof.Feminismismainlyfocusedonwomen'sissues,butbecausefeminismseeksgenderequality,somefeministsarguethatisanecessarypartoffeminism,andthatmenarealsoharmedbysexismandgenderroles.

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History

FeministSuffrageParadeinNewYorkCity,May6,1912.

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Dependingonhistoricalmoment,cultureandcountry,feministsaroundtheworldhavehaddifferentcausesandgoals.Mostwesternfeministhistoriansassertthatallmovementsthatworktoobtainshouldbeconsideredfeministmovements,evenwhentheydidnot（ordonot）applythetermtothemselves.Otherhistoriansassertthatthetermshouldbelimitedtothemodernfeministmovementanditsdescendants.Thosehistoriansusethelabel""todescribeearliermovements.

Thehistoryofthemodernwesternfeministmovementsisdividedintothree"waves".Eachwavedealtwithdifferentaspectsofthesamefeministissues.Thecomprisedmovementsofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,promotingwomen'srighttovote.Thewasassociatedwiththeideasandactionsofthebeginninginthe1960s.Thesecondwavecampaignedforlegalandsocialequalityforwomen.Theisacontinuationof,andareactionto,theperceivedfailuresofsecond-wavefeminism,beginninginthe1990s.

Nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies

wasaperiodofactivityduringthenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcentury.Intheand,itfocusedonthepromotionofequalcontract,marriage,parenting,andpropertyrightsforwomen.Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,activismfocusedprimarilyongainingpoliticalpower,particularlytherightofwomen's,thoughsomefeministswereactiveincampaigningforwomen'ssexual,,andeconomicrightsaswell.

alongwithothersuffragettesin1935.Thenewspaperheadlinereads"TheFrenchwomanMustVote."

wasachievedinBritain'scoloniesatthecloseofthe19thcentury,withtheself-governingcoloniesofandgrantingwomenthein1893and1895respectively.ItwasfollowedbyAustraliapermittingwomentostandforparliamentaryofficeandgrantingwomentherighttovote.

Intheandthecampaignedforthewomen'svote,andin1918thewaspassedgrantingthevotetowomenovertheageof30whoownedhouses.In1928thiswasextendedtoallwomenovertwenty-one.IntheU.S.,notableleadersofthismovementincluded,,and,whoeachcampaignedforthepriortochampioningwomen'srighttovote.Thesewomenwereinfluencedbythetheologyofspiritualequality,whichassertsthatmenandwomenareequalunderGod.IntheUnitedStates,first-wavefeminismisconsideredtohaveendedwiththepassageofthe（1919）,grantingwomentherighttovoteinallstates.Thetermfirstwavewascoinedretroactivelytocategorizethesewesternmovementsafterthetermbegantobeusedtodescribeanewerfeministmovementthatfocusedasmuchonfightingsocialandculturalinequalitiesaspoliticalinequalities.

Duringthelateandreformmovementssuchasthe,Chinesefeministscalledforwomen'sliberationfromtraditionalrolesandgendersegregation.Later,thecreatedprojectsaimedatintegratingwomenintotheworkforce,andclaimedthattherevolutionhadsuccessfullyachievedwomen'sliberation.

In1899,,consideredthe"father"ofArabfeminism,wroteTheLiberationofWomen,whicharguedforlegalandsocialreformsforwomen.foundedthein1923,andbecameitspresidentandasymboloftheArabwomen'srightsmovement.Arabfeminismwascloselyconnectedwith.

Thein1905triggeredthe,whichaimedtoachievewomen'sequalityineducation,marriage,careers,andlegalrights.However,duringtheof1979,manyoftherightsthatwomenhadgainedfromthewomen'smovementweresystematicallyabolished,suchasthe.

InFrance,womenobtainedtheonlywiththeof21April1944.TheConsultativeAssemblyofAlgiersof1944proposedon24March1944togranteligibilitytowomenbutfollowinganamendmentby,theyweregivenfullcitizenship,includingtherighttovote.Grenier'spropositionwasadopted51to16.InMay1947,followingthe,thesociologistRobertVerdierminimizedthe","statinginthatwomenhadnotvotedinaconsistentway,dividingthemselves,asmen,accordingtosocialclasses.Duringtheperiod,feminismwanedinimportance.Wars（bothWorldWarIandWorldWarII）hadseentheprovisionalemancipationofsome,individual,women,butpost-warperiodssignaledthereturntoconservativeroles.

Mid-twentiethcentury

FrenchphilosopherprovidedasolutionandanviewonmanyofthequestionsoffeminismwiththepublicationofLeDeuxièmeSexe（）in1949.Thebookexpressedfeminists'senseofinjustice.isafeministmovementbeginningintheearly1960sandcontinuingtothepresent;assuch,itcoexistswith.Secondwavefeminismislargelyconcernedwithissuesofequalityotherthansuffrage,suchasendingdiscrimination.

Second-wavefeministsseewomen'sculturalandpoliticalinequalitiesasinextricablylinkedandencouragewomentounderstandaspectsoftheirpersonallivesasdeeplypoliticizedandasreflectingpowerstructures.Thefeministactivistandauthorcoinedtheslogan"ThePersonalisPolitical",whichbecamesynonymouswiththesecondwave.

Secondandthird-wavefeminisminChinahasbeencharacterizedbyare-examinationofwomen'srolesduringthecommunistrevolutionandotherreformmovements,andnewdiscussionsaboutwhetherwomen'sequalityhasactuallybeenfullyachieved.

In1956,PresidentofEgyptinitiated"",whichoutlaweddiscriminationbasedongenderandgrantedwomen'ssuffrage,butalsoblockedpoliticalactivismbyfeministleaders.During'spresidency,hiswife,,publiclyadvocatedforfurtherwomen'srights,thoughEgyptianpolicyandsocietybegantomoveawayfromwomen'sequalitywiththenewmovementandgrowingconservatism.However,someactivistsproposedanewfeministmovement,,whicharguesforwomen'sequalitywithinanIslamicframework.

InLatinAmerica,revolutionsbroughtchangesinwomen'sstatusincountriessuchas,whereaidedwomen'squalityoflifebutfellshortofachievingasocialandideologicalchange.

Latetwentiethandearlytwenty-firstcenturies

Intheearly1990sintheUSA,beganasaresponsetoperceivedfailuresofthesecondwaveandtothebacklashagainstinitiativesandmovementscreatedbythesecondwave.Third-wavefeminismseekstochallengeoravoidwhatitdeemsthesecondwave'sdefinitionsof,which,theyargue,over-emphasizetheexperiencesofuppermiddle-classwhitewomen.Third-wavefeministsoftenfocuson"micro-politics"andchallengethesecondwave'sparadigmastowhatis,orisnot,goodforwomen,andtendtouseainterpretationofgenderandsexuality.Feministleadersrootedinthesecondwave,suchas,,ChelaSandoval,,,,andmanyotherblackfeminists,soughttonegotiateaspacewithinfeministthoughtforconsiderationofrace-relatedsubjectivities.

Sincethe1980shavearguedthatthefeministmovementshouldaddressglobalissues（suchasrape,,and）andculturallyspecificissues（suchasinsomepartsofAfricaandtheMiddleEastandpracticesthatimpedewomen'sadvancementindevelopedeconomies）inordertounderstandhowgenderinequalityinteractswith,,andina"matrixofdomination."Third-wavefeminismalsocontainsinternaldebatesbetween,whobelievethatthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthesexes,andthosewhobelievethattherearenoinherentdifferencesbetweenthesexesandcontendthatgenderrolesaredueto.

Thetermisusedtodescribearangeofviewpointsreactingtofeminismsincethe1980s.Whilenotbeing"anti-feminist",post-feministsbelievethatwomenhaveachievedsecondwavegoalswhilebeingcriticalofthirdwavefeministgoals.Thetermwasfirstusedtodescribeabacklashagainst,butitisnowalabelforawiderangeoftheoriesthattakecriticalapproachestopreviousfeministdiscoursesandincludeschallengestothesecondwave'sideas.Otherpost-feministssaythatfeminismisnolongerrelevanttotoday'ssociety.AmeliaJoneshaswrittenthatthepost-feministtextswhichemergedinthe1980sand1990sportrayedsecond-wavefeminismasamonolithicentity.

Theory

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Feministtheoryistheextensionoffeminismintotheoreticalorphilosophica