语义学 蕴含与预设.docx
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语义学蕴含与预设
句子语义学
词和词之间有各种各样的意义关系,我们称之为senserelation。
句子也一样,可以有各种意义关系。
句子语义学是在句子层面对意义进行研究,并把句子当成一个整体来看待。
◆Presupposition前提/预设,这一概念是由哲学家弗雷格(G.Frege)首先提出来的。
在言语交际中,我们所说的一句句话并不是孤立的,相互之间毫无联系的。
相反前一句话和后一句话往往有密切的联系。
Pleaseopenthedoor.
这句话的意思很清楚,就是“请把们打开”,但是说这句话必须有一个前提,那就是“现在要开的门再说话时是关着的”。
所以从语义的角度来看,句子所包含的“前提”和这个句子本身的意义有十份密切的关系
句子的前提有这样的特点:
否定了句子本身,句子的前提保留不变。
Johnismarried.
Johnexists.
Johnisnotmarried.
◆Semanticpresuppositionandpragmaticpresupposition
语义预设是对语句之间关系所做的逻辑分析,他面对的是一种不变的关系:
即如果P在语义上预设Q,则P总是在语义上预设Q。
但在实际的语言活动中(语用预设),预设通常不是语义中稳定的不受约束的部分。
这也正是有些语言学家认为预设属于语用学而不属于语义学的主要原因。
一个重要的事实是,在一定的语境里,预设会消失,也就是说预设具有可消失性(defeasibility)。
例如:
Suecriedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.
Suediedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.
◆WhatisSemanticPresupposition?
Inmanydiscussionsoftheconcept,presuppositionistreatedasarelationshipbetweentwopropositionsbythelinguists.Ifwesaythesentencein(1a.)containsthepropositionpandthesentencein(1b.)containsthepropositionq,then,using>>tomean‘presupposes’,wecanrepresenttherelationshipasin(1c.).
(1)a.Mary’sdogiscute.(=p)
b.Maryhasadog.(=q)
c.p>>q
Interestingly,whenweproducetheoppositeofthesentencein(1a.)bynegatingit(=NOTp),asin(2a.),wefindthattherelationshipofpresuppositiondoesnotchange.Thatis,thesamepropositionq,repeatedas(2b.),continuestobepresupposedbyNOTp,asshownin(2c.).
(2)a.Mary’sdogisn’tcute.(=NOTp)
b.Maryhasadog.(=q)
c.NOTp>>q
Presuppositionisaninference(推论)tothepropositionofthesentence.Takethefollowingsentencesforexampleagain:
e.g.(3)Johnismarried.
(4)Johnexists.
(5)Johnisnotmarried.
Comment:
if(3)istrue,(4)istrue;if(3)isnottrue,(4)isstilltrue.Inthiscase,wecansayboth(3)and(5)presuppose(4).Apresuppositionissomethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutterance.Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions.Anentailmentissomethingthatlogicallyfollowsfromwhatisassertedintheutterance.Sentences,notspeakers,haveentailments.
◆Semanticpresuppositionwouldbebasedonthefollowingdefinition:
SentenceAsemanticallypresupposesanothersentenceBiff:
ifandonlyif,iff是充分必要条件
(a)inallsituationswhereAistrue,Bistrue
(b)inallsituationswhereAisfalse,Bistrue
◆Typesofpresupposition
Potentialpresupposition:
intheanalysisofhowspeakers’assumptionsaretypicallyexpressed,presuppositionhasbeenassociatedwiththeuseofalargenumberofwords,phrases,andstructures.Theselinguisticformsshallbeconsideredasindicatorsofpotentialpresuppositions,whichcanonlybecomeactualpresuppositionsincontextswithspeakers.Thefollowingkindsofpresuppositionsareallpotentialpresuppositions.Nowwe’lllookatthemajorpresuppositiontypesmarkedbydifferentlinguisticfeatures.
◆Existentialpresupposition:
presupposetheexistenceofsomething.(my).Itisnotonlyassumedtobepresentinpossessiveconstructions,butmoregenerallyinanydefinitedescriptionssuchasdefinitenounphrasewithdetermines‘the’,‘this’,‘that’,‘these’,‘those’,etc.Byusinganyoftheexpressionsin(16),thespeakerisassumedtobecommittedtotheexistenceoftheentitiesnamed.
(16)e.g.ThekingofSweden,thecat,thegirlnextdoor(Yule,2004:
27)
◆Factivepresupposition:
presupposesomethingasafact.(know).Anumberoffactiveverbs,suchas‘realize’in(17a)and‘regret’in(17b),aswellasphrasesinvolving‘be’with‘aware’in(17c),‘odd’in(17d),and‘glad’in(17e)havefactivepresuppositions.
(17)a.Shedidn’trealizehewasill.
(>>Hewasill)
b.Weregrettellinghim.
(>>Wetoldhim)
c.Iwasn’tawarethatshewasmarried.
(>>Shewasmarried)
d.Itisn’toddthatheleftearly.
(>>Heleftearly)
e.I’mgladthatit’sover.
(>>It’sover)
Thepresupposedinformationfollowingtheverb‘know’canbetreatedasafact,andisdescribedasafactivepresupposition.Wordslikeknow,realize,regretaswellasphrasesinvolving‘be’with‘aware’,‘odd’,and‘glad’havefactivepresuppositions.(Yule,2004:
27-28)
◆Lexicalpresupposition:
whenaspecificwordtriggersapresupposition.Itisfeaturedbyimplicativeverbslike‘manage’,‘start’,‘stop’,‘forget’,etc.Generallyspeaking,inlexicalpresupposition,theuseofoneformwithitsassertedmeaningisconventionallyinterpretedwiththepresuppositionthatanother(non-asserted)meaningisunderstood.
Eachtimeyousaythatsomeone‘managed’todosomething,theassertedmeaningisthatthepersonsucceededinsomeway.Whenyousaythatsomeone‘didn’tmanage’,theassertedmeaningisthatthepersondidnotsucceed.Inbothcases,however,thereisapresupposition(non-asserted)thattheperson‘tried’todothatsomething.So,‘managed’isconventionallyinterpretedasasserting‘succeeded’andpresupposing‘tried’.
(18)a.Hestoppedsmoking.
(>>Heusedtosmoke)
b.Theystartedcomplaining.
(>>Theyweren’tcomplainingbefore)
c.You’relateagain.
(>>Youwerelatebefore)
Lexicalpresupposition:
inlexicalpresupposition,theuseofoneformwithitsassertedmeaningisconventionallyinterpretedwiththepresuppositionthatanother(non-asserted)meaningisunderstood.Forexample,someone‘managed’todosomething,theassertedmeaningisthatthepersonsucceededinsomeway.Someone‘didn’tmanage’;theassertedmeaningisthatthepersondidnotsucceed.Inbothcases,thereisapresupposition(non-asserted)thattheperson‘tried’todothatsomething.So‘managed’isconventionallyinterpretedasasserting‘succeeded’andpresupposing‘tried’.Otherexamples,involvingthelexicalitems,are‘stop’,‘start’,and‘again’.(Yule,2004:
28)
◆Structuralpresupposition:
certainsentencestructurespresupposesomethingtobetrue.(wh-questions).Wemightsaythatspeakerscanusesuchstructurestotreatinformationaspresupposed(i.e.assumedtobetrue)andhencetobeacceptedastruebythelistener.
Forexample,thewh-questionconstructioninEnglish,asshownin(19a)and(19b),isconventionallyinterpretedwiththepresuppositionthattheinformationafterthewh-formisalreadyknowntobethecase.
a.Whendidheleave?
(>>Heleft)
b.Wheredidyoubuythebike?
(>>Youboughtthebike)
Certainsentencestructureshavebeenanalyzedasconventionallyandregularlypresupposingthatpartofthestructureisalreadyassumedtobetrue.Wemightsaythatspeakerscanusesuchstructurestotreatinformationaspresupposed(i.e.assumedtobetrue)andhencetobeacceptedastruebylistener.Forexample,thewh-questionconstructioninEnglishisconventionallyinterpretedasthattheinformationafterthewh-formisalreadyknowntobethecase.Suchstructurally-basedpresuppositionsmayrepresentsubtlewaysofmakinginformationthatthespeakerbelievesappeartobewhatthelistenershouldbelieve.(wh-questions)
◆Non-factivepresupposition:
Itisonethatisassumednottobetrue.Verbslike‘dream’,‘imagine’,and‘pretend’,asshownin(20),areusedwiththepresuppositionthatwhatfollowsisnottrue.
(20).a.IdreamedthatIwasrich.
(>>Iwasnotrich)
b.WeimaginedwewereinNewYork.
(>>wewerenotinNewYork)
Hepretendstobeill.
(>>Heisnotill)
◆Counter-facturalpresupposition:
Whatispresupposedisnotonlynottrue,butistheoppositeofwhatistrue,or‘contrarytofacts’.(Conditionalstructure)
Aconditionalstructureofthetypeshownin(21),generallycalledacounterfactualconditional,presupposesthattheinformationintheif-clauseisnottrueatthetimeofutterance.
(21).Ifyouweremyfriend,youwouldhavehelpedme.
(>>youarenotmyfriend)
Summary:
Type
Example
Presupposition
existential
theX
>>Xexists
factive
Iregretleaving
>>Ileft
non-factive
Hepretendedtogo
>>Hedidn’tgo
lexical
Hemanagedtoescape
>>Hetriedtoescape
structural
Whendidshedie?
>>Shedied
counterfactural
IfIweren’till,
>>Iamill
◆Thepropertiesofpresuppositions
★Cancelability/Defeasibility:
Levinson(1983:
186)statesthattheycanbecancelledoutbyeithertheimmediatelinguisticcontextorbysomewidercontextormodeofdiscourse.Ifwesay‘Thecommitteefailedtoreachadecision’,itpresupposesthattheytried,butwecancanceloutthatpresuppositionifweadd‘becausetheydidn’tevengetroundtodiscussingit’.Similarly,wecanarguepresuppositionoutofthewaybyavariantonthereductioadabsurdum(thedisproofofapropositionbyshowingthatitsconclusioncanonlybeabsurd)modeofdiscourse:
‘Hedidn’tdoit,andshedidn’tdoit…Infact,nobodydidit’.Theyaredefensiblein(a)certaindiscoursecontexts,(b)certainintra-sententialcontext.Thispropertywillprovetobetheundoing(doingawaywith)ofanypossiblesemantictheoryofpresupposition.Theyaredefeasibleincertainintra-sententialcontextsandcertaindiscoursecontext,forexample,
(1)Suecriedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.
(2)Suefinishedherthesis.
(3)Suediedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.
InSentence(3)thepresuppositionseemstodropout,sincewegenerallyholdthatpeopledonotdothingsaftertheydie,itfollowsthatshecouldnothavefinishedherthesis.Theyareliabletoevaporateincertaincontexts,eitherimmediatelinguisticcontextorthelessimmediatediscoursecontext,oroncircumstanceswherecontraryassumptionsaremade.(Levinson,2001,p187)
Anotherkindofcontextualdefeasibilityarisesincertainkindsofdiscoursecontexts.Forexample,thecleftsentence1issupposedtopresuppose2:
1.Itisn’tLukewhowillbetrayyou.
2.Someonewillbetrayyou.
Yousaythatsomeoneinthisroomwillbetrayyou.Wellmaybeso.B