Charles Robert Darwin.docx

Charles Robert Darwin.docx

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CharlesRobertDarwin

CharlesRobertDarwin,FRS（12February1809–19April1882）wasanEnglishnaturalist.[I]Heestablishedthatallspeciesoflifehavedescendedovertimefromcommonancestors,[1]andproposedthescientifictheorythatthisbranchingpatternofevolutionresultedfromaprocessthathecallednaturalselection,inwhichthestruggleforexistencehasasimilareffecttotheartificialselectioninvolvedinselectivebreeding.[2]

Darwinpublishedhistheoryofevolutionwithcompellingevidenceinhis1859bookOntheOriginofSpecies,overcomingscientificrejectionofearlierconceptsoftransmutationofspecies.[3][4]Bythe1870sthescientificcommunityandmuchofthegeneralpublichadacceptedevolutionasafact.However,manyfavouredcompetingexplanationsanditwasnotuntiltheemergenceofthemodernevolutionarysynthesisfromthe1930stothe1950sthatabroadconsensusdevelopedinwhichnaturalselectionwasthebasicmechanismofevolution.[5][6]Inmodifiedform,Darwin'sscientificdiscoveryistheunifyingtheoryofthelifesciences,explainingthediversityoflife.[7][8]

Darwin'searlyinterestinnatureledhimtoneglecthismedicaleducationattheUniversityofEdinburgh;instead,hehelpedtoinvestigatemarineinvertebrates.StudiesattheUniversityofCambridgeencouragedhispassionfornaturalscience.[9]Hisfive-yearvoyageonHMSBeagleestablishedhimasaneminentgeologistwhoseobservationsandtheoriessupportedCharlesLyell'suniformitarianideas,andpublicationofhisjournalofthevoyagemadehimfamousasapopularauthor.[10]

Puzzledbythegeographicaldistributionofwildlifeandfossilshecollectedonthevoyage,Darwinbegandetailedinvestigationsandin1838conceivedhistheoryofnaturalselection.[11]Althoughhediscussedhisideaswithseveralnaturalists,heneededtimeforextensiveresearchandhisgeologicalworkhadpriority.[12]Hewaswritinguphistheoryin1858whenAlfredRusselWallacesenthimanessaywhichdescribedthesameidea,promptingimmediatejointpublicationofbothoftheirtheories.[13]Darwin'sworkestablishedevolutionarydescentwithmodificationasthedominantscientificexplanationofdiversificationinnature.[5]In1871heexaminedhumanevolutionandsexualselectioninTheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex,followedbyTheExpressionoftheEmotionsinManandAnimals.Hisresearchonplantswaspublishedinaseriesofbooks,andinhisfinalbook,heexaminedearthwormsandtheireffectonsoil.[14]

InrecognitionofDarwin'spre-eminenceasascientist,hewashonouredwithamajorceremonialfuneralandburiedinWestminsterAbbey,closetoJohnHerschelandIsaacNewton.[15]Darwinhasbeendescribedasoneofthemostinfluentialfiguresinhumanhistory.[16][17]

Contents

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∙1Life

o1.1Childhoodandeducation

o1.2VoyageoftheBeagle

o1.3InceptionofDarwin'sevolutionarytheory

o1.4Overwork,illness,andmarriage

▪1.4.1Malthusandnaturalselection

o1.5Preparingthetheoryofnaturalselectionforpublication

o1.6Publicationofthetheoryofnaturalselection

o1.7Responsestopublication

o1.8DescentofMan,sexualselection,andbotany

o1.9Deathandlegacy

o1.10Children

∙2Viewsandopinions

o2.1Religiousviews

o2.2Humansociety

∙3Evolutionarysocialmovements

∙4Commemoration

∙5Works

∙6Seealso

∙7Notes

∙8Citations

∙9References

∙10Externallinks

Life

Childhoodandeducation

Seealso:

CharlesDarwin'seducationandDarwin-Wedgwoodfamily

CharlesRobertDarwinwasborninShrewsbury,Shropshire,Englandon12February1809athisfamilyhome,TheMount,[18]HewasthefifthofsixchildrenofwealthysocietydoctorandfinancierRobertDarwin,andSusannahDarwin（néeWedgwood）.HewasthegrandsonofErasmusDarwinonhisfather'sside,andofJosiahWedgwoodonhismother'sside.

Theseven-year-oldCharlesDarwinin1816.

BothfamilieswerelargelyUnitarian,thoughtheWedgwoodswereadoptingAnglicanism.RobertDarwin,himselfquietlyafreethinker,hadbabyCharlesbaptisedinNovember1809intheAnglicanStChad'sChurch,Shrewsbury,butCharlesandhissiblingsattendedtheUnitarianchapelwiththeirmother.Theeight-year-oldCharlesalreadyhadatastefornaturalhistoryandcollectingwhenhejoinedthedayschoolrunbyitspreacherin1817.ThatJuly,hismotherdied.FromSeptember1818hejoinedhisolderbrotherErasmusattendingthenearbyAnglicanShrewsburySchoolasaboarder.[19]

Darwinspentthesummerof1825asanapprenticedoctor,helpinghisfathertreatthepoorofShropshire,beforegoingtotheUniversityofEdinburghMedicalSchoolwithhisbrotherErasmusinOctober1825.Hefoundlecturesdullandsurgerydistressing,soneglectedhisstudies.HelearnedtaxidermyfromJohnEdmonstone,afreedblackslavewhohadaccompaniedCharlesWatertonintheSouthAmericanrainforest,andoftensatwiththis"verypleasantandintelligentman".[20]

InDarwin'ssecondyearhejoinedthePlinianSociety,astudentnaturalhistorygroupwhosedebatesstrayedintoradicalmaterialism.HeassistedRobertEdmondGrant'sinvestigationsoftheanatomyandlifecycleofmarineinvertebratesintheFirthofForth,andon27March1827presentedatthePlinianhisowndiscoverythatblacksporesfoundinoystershellsweretheeggsofaskateleech.Oneday,GrantpraisedLamarck'sevolutionaryideas.DarwinwasastonishedbyGrant'saudacity,buthadrecentlyreadsimilarideasinhisgrandfatherErasmus'journals.[21]DarwinwasratherboredbyRobertJameson'snaturalhistorycoursewhichcoveredgeologyincludingthedebatebetweenNeptunismandPlutonism.Helearnedclassificationofplants,andassistedwithworkonthecollectionsoftheUniversityMuseum,oneofthelargestmuseumsinEuropeatthetime.[22]

Thisneglectofmedicalstudiesannoyedhisfather,whoshrewdlysenthimtoChrist'sCollege,Cambridge,foraBachelorofArtsdegreeasthefirststeptowardsbecominganAnglicanparson.AsDarwinwasunqualifiedfortheTripos,hejoinedtheordinarydegreecourseinJanuary1828.[23]Hepreferredridingandshootingtostudying.HiscousinWilliamDarwinFoxintroducedhimtothepopularcrazeforbeetlecollecting;Darwinpursuedthiszealously,gettingsomeofhisfindspublishedinStevens'IllustrationsofBritishentomology.HebecameaclosefriendandfollowerofbotanyprofessorJohnStevensHenslowandmetotherleadingnaturalistswhosawscientificworkasreligiousnaturaltheology,becomingknowntothesedonsas"themanwhowalkswithHenslow".Whenhisownexamsdrewnear,DarwinfocusedonhisstudiesandwasdelightedbythelanguageandlogicofWilliamPaley'sEvidencesofChristianity.[24]InhisfinalexaminationinJanuary1831Darwindidwell,comingtenthoutof178candidatesfortheordinarydegree.[25]

DarwinhadtostayatCambridgeuntilJune.HestudiedPaley'sNaturalTheology,whichmadeanargumentfordivinedesigninnature,explainingadaptationasGodactingthroughlawsofnature.[26]HereadJohnHerschel'snewbook,whichdescribedthehighestaimofnaturalphilosophyasunderstandingsuchlawsthroughinductivereasoningbasedonobservation,andAlexandervonHumboldt'sPersonalNarrativeofscientifictravels.Inspiredwith"aburningzeal"tocontribute,DarwinplannedtovisitTenerifewithsomeclassmatesaftergraduationtostudynaturalhistoryinthetropics.Inpreparation,hejoinedAdamSedgwick'sgeologycourse,thentravelledwithhiminthesummerforafortnight,inordertomapstratainWales.[27]

VoyageoftheBeagle

Formoredetailsonthistopic,seeSecondvoyageofHMSBeagle.

ThevoyageoftheBeagle

AfteraweekwithstudentfriendsatBarmouth,Darwinreturnedhomeon29AugusttofindaletterfromHenslowproposinghimasasuitable（ifunfinished）gentlemannaturalistforaself-fundedsupernumeraryplaceonHMSBeaglewithcaptainRobertFitzRoy,moreasacompanionthanamerecollector.TheshipwastoleaveinfourweeksonanexpeditiontochartthecoastlineofSouthAmerica.[28]RobertDarwinobjectedtohisson'splannedtwo-yearvoyage,regardingitasawasteoftime,butwaspersuadedbyhisbrother-in-law,JosiahWedgwood,toagreeto（andfund）hisson'sparticipation.[29]

Afterdelays,thevoyagebeganon27December1831;itlastedalmostfiveyears.AsFitzRoyhadintended,Darwinspentmostofthattimeonlandinvestigatinggeologyandmakingnaturalhistorycollections,whiletheBeaglesurveyedandchartedcoasts.[5][30]Hekeptcarefulnotesofhisobservationsandtheoreticalspeculations,andatintervalsduringthevoyagehisspecimensweresenttoCambridgetogetherwithlettersincludingacopyofhisjournalforhisfamily.[31]Hehadsomeexpertiseingeology,beetlecollectinganddissectingmarineinvertebrates,butinallotherareaswasanoviceandablycollectedspecimensforexpertappraisal.[32]Despitesufferingbadlyfromseasickness,Darwinwrotecopiousnoteswhileonboardtheship.Mostofhiszoologynotesareaboutmarineinvertebrates,startingwithplanktoncollectedinacalmspell.[30][33]

OntheirfirststopashoreatSt.Jago,Darwinfoundthatawhitebandhighinthevolcanicrockcliffsincludedseashells.FitzRoyhadgivenhimthefirstvolumeofCharlesLyell'sPrinciplesofGeologywhichsetoutuniformitarianconceptsoflandslowlyrisingorfallingoverimmenseperiods,[II]andDarwinsawthingsLyell'sway,theorisingandthinkingofwritingabookongeology.[34]

WhentheyreachedBrazilDarwinwasdelightedbythetropicalforest,[35]butdetestedthesightofslavery.[36]ThesurveycontinuedtothesouthinPatagonia.TheystoppedatBahíaBlanca,andincliffsnearPuntaAltaDarwinmadeamaj