The Introduction To Fallacies.docx

The Introduction To Fallacies.docx

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TheIntroductionToFallacies

Fallacies

DescriptionofFallacies

Inordertounderstandwhatafallacyis,onemustunderstandwhatanargumentis.Verybriefly,anargumentconsistsofoneormorepremisesandoneconclusion.Apremiseisastatement（asentencethatiseithertrueorfalse）thatisofferedinsupportoftheclaimbeingmade,whichistheconclusion（whichisalsoasentencethatiseithertrueorfalse）.

Therearetwomaintypesofarguments:

deductiveandinductive.Adeductiveargumentisanargumentsuchthatthepremisesprovide（orappeartoprovide）completesupportfortheconclusion.Aninductiveargumentisanargumentsuchthatthepremisesprovide（orappeartoprovide）somedegreeofsupport（butlessthancompletesupport）fortheconclusion.Ifthepremisesactuallyprovidetherequireddegreeofsupportfortheconclusion,thentheargumentisagoodone.Agooddeductiveargumentisknownasavalidargumentandissuchthatifallitspremisesaretrue,thenitsconclusionmustbetrue.Ifalltheargumentisvalidandactuallyhasalltruepremises,thenitisknownasasoundargument.Ifitisinvalidorhasoneormorefalsepremises,itwillbeunsound.Agoodinductiveargumentisknownasastrong（or"cogent"）inductiveargument.Itissuchthatifthepremisesaretrue,theconclusionislikelytobetrue.

Afallacyis,verygenerally,anerrorinreasoning.Thisdiffersfromafactualerror,whichissimplybeingwrongaboutthefacts.Tobemorespecific,afallacyisan"argument"inwhichthepremisesgivenfortheconclusiondonotprovidetheneededdegreeofsupport.Adeductivefallacyisadeductiveargumentthatisinvalid（itissuchthatitcouldhavealltruepremisesandstillhaveafalseconclusion）.Aninductivefallacyislessformalthanadeductivefallacy.Theyaresimply"arguments"whichappeartobeinductivearguments,butthepremisesdonotprovidedenoughsupportfortheconclusion.Insuchcases,evenifthepremisesweretrue,theconclusionwouldnotbemorelikelytobetrue.

DescriptionofFallacies

Inordertounderstandwhatafallacyis,onemustunderstandwhatanargumentis.Verybriefly,anargumentconsistsofoneormorepremisesandoneconclusion.Apremiseisastatement（asentencethatiseithertrueorfalse）thatisofferedinsupportoftheclaimbeingmade,whichistheconclusion（whichisalsoasentencethatiseithertrueorfalse）.

Therearetwomaintypesofarguments:

deductiveandinductive.Adeductiveargumentisanargumentsuchthatthepremisesprovide（orappeartoprovide）completesupportfortheconclusion.Aninductiveargumentisanargumentsuchthatthepremisesprovide（orappeartoprovide）somedegreeofsupport（butlessthancompletesupport）fortheconclusion.Ifthepremisesactuallyprovidetherequireddegreeofsupportfortheconclusion,thentheargumentisagoodone.Agooddeductiveargumentisknownasavalidargumentandissuchthatifallitspremisesaretrue,thenitsconclusionmustbetrue.Ifalltheargumentisvalidandactuallyhasalltruepremises,thenitisknownasasoundargument.Ifitisinvalidorhasoneormorefalsepremises,itwillbeunsound.Agoodinductiveargumentisknownasastrong（or"cogent"）inductiveargument.Itissuchthatifthepremisesaretrue,theconclusionislikelytobetrue.

Afallacyis,verygenerally,anerrorinreasoning.Thisdiffersfromafactualerror,whichissimplybeingwrongaboutthefacts.Tobemorespecific,afallacyisan"argument"inwhichthepremisesgivenfortheconclusiondonotprovidetheneededdegreeofsupport.Adeductivefallacyisadeductiveargumentthatisinvalid（itissuchthatitcouldhavealltruepremisesandstillhaveafalseconclusion）.Aninductivefallacyislessformalthanadeductivefallacy.Theyaresimply"arguments"whichappeartobeinductivearguments,butthepremisesdonotprovidedenoughsupportfortheconclusion.Insuchcases,evenifthepremisesweretrue,theconclusionwouldnotbemorelikelytobetrue.

ExamplesofFallacies

1.InductiveArgument

Premise1:

MostAmericancatsaredomestichousecats.

Premise2:

BillisanAmericancat.

Conclusion:

Billisdomestichousecat.

2.FactualError

ColumbusisthecapitaloftheUnitedStates.

3.DeductiveFallacy

Premise1:

IfPortlandisthecapitalofMaine,thenitisinMaine.

Premise2:

PortlandisinMaine.

Conclusion:

PortlandisthecapitalofMaine.

（PortlandisinMaine,butAugustaisthecapital.PortlandisthelargestcityinMaine,though.）

4.InductiveFallacy

Premise1:

HavingjustarrivedinOhio,Isawawhitesquirrel.

Conclusion:

AllOhioSquirrelsarewhite.

（Whiletherearemany,manysquirrelsinOhio,thewhiteonesareveryrare）.

Fallacy:

AdHominem

DescriptionofAdHominem

TranslatedfromLatintoEnglish,"AdHominem"means"againsttheman"or"againsttheperson."

AnAdHominemisageneralcategoryoffallaciesinwhichaclaimorargumentisrejectedonthebasisofsomeirrelevantfactabouttheauthoroforthepersonpresentingtheclaimorargument.Typically,thisfallacyinvolvestwosteps.First,anattackagainstthecharacterofpersonmakingtheclaim,hercircumstances,orheractionsismade（orthecharacter,circumstances,oractionsofthepersonreportingtheclaim）.Second,thisattackistakentobeevidenceagainsttheclaimorargumentthepersoninquestionismaking（orpresenting）.Thistypeof"argument"hasthefollowingform:

1.PersonAmakesclaimX.

2.PersonBmakesanattackonpersonA.

3.ThereforeA'sclaimisfalse.

ThereasonwhyanAdHominem（ofanykind）isafallacyisthatthecharacter,circumstances,oractionsofapersondonot（inmostcases）haveabearingonthetruthorfalsityoftheclaimbeingmade（orthequalityoftheargumentbeingmade）.

ExampleofAdHominem

1.Bill:

"Ibelievethatabortionismorallywrong."

Dave:

"Ofcourseyouwouldsaythat,you'reapriest."

Bill:

"WhatabouttheargumentsIgavetosupportmyposition?

"

Dave:

"Thosedon'tcount.LikeIsaid,you'reapriest,soyouhavetosaythatabortioniswrong.Further,youarejustalackeytothePope,soIcan'tbelievewhatyousay."

Fallacy:

AdHominemTuQuoque

AlsoKnownas:

"YouTooFallacy"

DescriptionofAdHominemTuQuoque

Thisfallacyiscommittedwhenitisconcludedthataperson'sclaimisfalsebecause1）itisinconsistentwithsomethingelseapersonhassaidor2）whatapersonsaysisinconsistentwithheractions.Thistypeof"argument"hasthefollowingform:

1.PersonAmakesclaimX.

2.PersonBassertsthatA'sactionsorpastclaimsareinconsistentwiththetruthofclaimX.

3.ThereforeXisfalse.

Thefactthatapersonmakesinconsistentclaimsdoesnotmakeanyparticularclaimhemakesfalse（althoughofanypairofinconsistentclaimsonlyonecanbetrue-butbothcanbefalse）.Also,thefactthataperson'sclaimsarenotconsistentwithhisactionsmightindicatethatthepersonisahypocritebutthisdoesnotprovehisclaimsarefalse.

ExamplesofAdHominemTuQuoque

1.Bill:

"Smokingisveryunhealthyandleadstoallsortsofproblems.Sotakemyadviceandneverstart."

Jill:

"Well,Icertainlydon'twanttogetcancer."

Bill:

"I'mgoingtogetasmoke.WanttojoinmeDave?

"

Jill:

"Well,Iguesssmokingcan'tbethatbad.Afterall,Billsmokes."

2.Jill:

"Ithinktheguncontrolbillshouldn'tbesupportedbecauseitwon'tbeeffectiveandwillwastemoney."

Bill:

"Well,justlastmonthyousupportedthebill.SoIguessyou'rewrongnow."

3.Peter:

"BasedontheargumentsIhavepresented,itisevidentthatitismorallywrongtouseanimalsforfoodorclothing."

Bill:

"Butyouarewearingaleatherjacketandyouhavearoastbeefsandwichinyourhand!

Howcanyousaythatusinganimalsforfoodandclothingiswrong!

"

Fallacy:

AppealtoAuthority

AlsoKnownas:

FallaciousAppealtoAuthority,MisuseofAuthority,IrrelevantAuthority,QuestionableAuthority,InappropriateAuthority,AdVerecundiam

DescriptionofAppealtoAuthority

AnAppealtoAuthorityisafallacywiththefollowingform:

1.PersonAis（claimedtobe）anauthorityonsubjectS.

2.PersonAmakesclaimCaboutsubjectS.

3.Therefore,Cistrue.

Thisfallacyiscommittedwhenthepersoninquestionisnotalegitimateauthorityonthesubject.Moreformally,ifpersonAisnotqualifiedtomakereliableclaimsinsubjectS,thentheargumentwillbefallacious.

Thissortofreasoningisfallaciouswhenthepersoninquestionisnotanexpert.Insuchcasesthereasoningisflawedbecausethefactthatanunqualifiedpersonmakesaclaimdoesnotprovideanyjustificationfortheclaim.Theclaimcouldbetrue,butthefactthatanunqualifiedpersonmadetheclaimdoesnotprovideanyrationalreasontoaccepttheclaimastrue.

Whenapersonfallspreytothisfallacy,theyareacceptingaclaimastruewithouttherebeingadequateevidencetodoso.Morespecifically,thepersonisacceptingtheclaimbecausetheyerroneouslybelievethatthepersonmakingtheclaimisalegitimateexpertandhencethattheclaimisreasonabletoaccept.Sincepeoplehaveatendencytobelieveauthorities（andthereare,infact,goodreasonstoacceptsomeclaimsmadebyauthorities）thisfallacyisafairlycommonone.

Sincethissortofreasoningisfallaciousonlywhenthepersonisnotalegitimateauthorityinaparticularcontext,itisnecessarytoprovidesomeacceptablestandardsofassessment.Thefollowingstandardsarewidelyaccepted:

1.Thepersonhassufficientexpertiseinthesubjectmatterinquestion.

Claimsmadebyapersonwholackstheneededdegreeofexpertisetomakeareliableclaimwi