6Groundlessbeliefs.docx
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6Groundlessbeliefs
6.-Groundless-beliefs
6.GroundlessBeliefs
Infuturewearegoingtofollowthepractice----untilitbecomeahabit----ofclassifyingpropositionsaccordingtotheirgrounds.Ofeverystatementwecomeacross,weshallask:
"HOWDOWEKONWTHAT?
WHATREASONHAVEWEFORBELIEVINGTHAT?
ONWHATGROUNGISTHATSTATEMENTBASED?
"Probablyweshallbeastonishedatthenumberofpropositionsmetwithineverydaylifewhichweshallfinditnecessarytoclassasgroundless.Theyrestuponmeretradition,oronsomebody’sbareassertionunsupportedbyevenashadowofproof......
Itmaybeabeliefwhichweoriginallyacceptedasaresultofsimple"suggestion"andwehavecontinuedtoholditeversince.Ithasnowbecomeoneofourregularhabits
Ofcoursewedonotcease,whenweceasetobechildren,toadoptnewbeliefsonmeresuggestion.Wecontinuedoingit,moreorlessunconsciouslyallourlives:
hence,totakeonlythemoststrikingexamples,theenormousinfluenceofnewspapersandtheeffectivenessofskilfuladvertising.Muchofwhatpassesassuchisnot,strictly,thinkingatall.Itisthemere“parroting”ofideaspickedupbychanceandadoptedasourownwithoutquestion.Mostpeople,mostofthetime,aremereparrots.Butasweleavechildhood,wetendtoacceptonlysuchnewideasasfitinwiththeideaswealreadyhold;andallconflictingideasseemtous“obviously”absurd.
Propositionsthatareacceptedsimplybecause“everybodysaysso,”mustbeclassedunderthesameheading.Thedogmamaynotbethatofanyparticularindividual:
itmaybeadogmaticstatementwhichhasbeenpassedfromonepersontoanother,fromgenerationtogeneration,perhapsforhundreds---perhapsforthousands---ofyears.Itmaybepartofthetraditionalbeliefofthepeopleortherace.Inthatcase,itispartofoursocialinheritancefromsomeperiodinthepast.Butweshouldfullyfacethefactthatbeliefswhicharemerelyinheritedfromthepastmusthaveoriginatedatatimewhenmenknewmuchlessthantheyknowtoday.Sothefactabeliefis“old”isnoargumentinitsfavour.
Weneedespeciallytobeonourguardwhenwecomeacrosspropositionswhichseemtobe“obviously”true.
Whenwefindourselvesentertaininganopinionaboutwhichthereisafeelingthateventoenquireintoitwouldbeabsurd,unnecessary,undesirable,orwicked---wemayknowthatthatopinionisanon-rationalone.
Whenwearetemptedtosaythatanygeneraltruthisso“obvious”thatitwouldbeabsurdeventoquestionit,weshouldrememberthatthewholehistoryofthedevelopmentofhumanthoughthasbeenfullofcasesofsuch“obvioustruths”breakingdownwhenexaminedinthelightofincreasingknowledgeandreason.Forinstance,foragesnothingcouldhaveseemedmoreobvious,moreutterlybeyondquestionthanthepropositionthatslaverywasnatural,reasonable,necessary,andright.Somekindsofmenwere“obviously”“slavesbynature.”Todoubtitwasimpossible.
Againformorethantwothousandsyears,itwas“impossibletoconceive”theplanetsasmovinginpathsotherthancircles.Thecirclewas“obviously”theperfectfigure;andsoitwas“natural”and“inevitable”tosupposethattheplanetsmovedincircles.Theage-longstruggleofthegreatestintellectsintheworldtoshakeoffthatassumptionisoneofthemarvelsofhistory.
Itwasformerly“obvious”thattheheart---andnotthebrain---wastheorganofconsciousness.Tomostpeopletodayitseemsequally“obvious”thatwethinkwithourbrains.Manymodernpersonsfinditverydifficulttocreditthefactthatmencaneverhavesupposedotherwise.Yet---theydid.
Thattheearthmustbeflat,formerlyseemedsoobviousandself-evidentthattheverysuggestionofanyotherpossibilitywouldhavebeen---andwas---regardedasajoke.
Itwasfortwothousandyears“takenforgranted”as“obvious”thataheavyweightmustfallfasterthanalightone.Anassumedordogmaticpropositionwhichhadbeenuniversallyacceptedas“obvious”;andwhich,whenchallenged,wassupportedbyreferencetoadogmaofAristotle.UntilGalileoactuallydemonstratedthecontrary(seeNoets5onp173),nothingcouldhaveseemedmorebeyondpossibilityordoubt.
Propositionswhichareacceptedblindly,withoutquestiononthegroundsofmereassumptionordogma,needtobefranklyrecognizedassuch.Progressinhumanthoughtseemstoconsistmainlyingettingridofsuchideas.
Otherbeliefsareheldthroughself-interest.Modernpsychologyleavesusnoroomfordoubtonthispoint.Weadoptandclingtosomebeliefsbecause---orpartlybecause---it“pays”ustodoso.Butasarule,thepersonconcernedisaboutthelastpersonintheworldtobeabletorecognizethisinhimself.Indeed,hewouldprobablybehighlyindignantiftoldofwhatanyonefamiliarwithmodernpsychologycanrecognizesoplainly.Itwouldbequitewrongtoattributeallopinions---evenpoliticalopinions---toself-interest.Butitwouldbeequallywrongtodenythatthisisonepotentfactor.
“Self-interest”istobeunderstoodfirstintheordinarysense,asreferringtoaman’swayofearninghislivelihoodandacquiringwealth.Butwemayextendthetermtocoveralsohisinterestinsocialposition;popularitywithhisfellows;therespectandgoodwillofthosewhoserespectandgoodwillhevalues.Itcovershisinterestinhisowncareer;inwhateverprestigeheenjoysasoneoftheleaders---oratleastasavaluedsupporter---ofsomemovementorinstitution,somereligiousbody,someotherkindofsocietyorgroup.Thereismanyamanwhoisunconsciouslycompelledtoclingtoabeliefbecauseheisa“somebody”insomecircle---andifheweretoabandonthatbelief,hewouldfindhimselfnobodyatall.
Puttingitbroadly,weshouldalwayssuspectanyofouropinionswhenwerecognizethatourhappinessdepends,directlyorindirectly,uponourcontinuingtoholdthem---whenwemightloseanything,materialorotherwise,bychangingouropinion.
Somewhatsimilaristheacceptanceofanopinionthroughthedesire---probablynotrecognizedbythepersonconcerned---tojustifyhisownnature,hisownposition,orhisownbehaviour.Thecowardcansoeasilyadoptaphilosophywhichseemstojustifycowardice---though,ofcourse,“cowardice”isnotthenamehegivesit!
Thelazyandbunglingpersoncanadoptasetofopinionswhichprovetohissatisfactionthat“thegrapesaresour”---the“grapes”beingtherewardsthatmoreenergeticandcompetentmencanwin.
Manygroundlessopinionsareheldthroughsentimentalassociations.Thethoughtisassociatedwithmemories---pleasantorunpleasantasthecasemaybe---ofparticularpersonswhoheldsimilaropinions.Itisfoundthatmanyamanwhoinchildhoodwashostiletohisfather,inafterlifeisalwaysprejudicedagainstwhateveropinionshisfatherusedtoexpress.Andconverselyinthecaseofonewhohaspleasantrecollectionsofhisfather,hismother,ateacherperhaps,orsomeotherpersonwhoplayedabigpartinhisearlylife.
Inadultlife,aswehaveoftenobserved,abitterquarrelmaychangeaman’sopinionentirely.Antagonismtoamanusuallyproducessomeantagonismtohisopinions;andthebitternessfeltagainstthemanusuallyspreadstotheideaforwhichhestands.Whatkeensatisfactionwefindinbelittlingtheopinions,orattackingtheopinions,ofsomebodyofwhomwearejealous,orofsomebodyagainstwhomwebearagrudge!
But,ontheotherhand,itisequallytruethatfriendlyfeelingstoamanhaveaneffectindisposingustofeelfriendlytohisviews.
OtheropinionsagainaredeterminedbywhatwemaybestcalledFashion.Totakeoneexample:
howlargelyouropinionsonthemeritsofcertainauthors,orpoets,orcomposers,aredictatedmerelybyfashion!
Buttheeffectoffashionisverymuchwiderthanthat:
wetraceitalmosteverywhere,ineveryfieldofthought.Wetendverystronglytofeelandtobelieveasothersarefeelingandbelieving.Notallothers,perhaps;butothersofourownset.
Butwedonot,asarule,continueallourliveschangingoursentimentsandopinionswitheverychangeoffashion.Soonerorlaterourmindsbecomefixed.Manyamanholdshisopinionstoday---becausetheyhappenedtobeinfashionten,twenty,thirty,forty,orfiftyyearsago.
Onceanopinionisaccepted,whateverbethecauseofitsacceptance,ithasastrongtendencytopersist.Everytimewethinkalongaparticularthought-pattern,makesiteasierforustothinkthesamewayagain.Itisquitelegitimatetospeakof“habits”ofthought.The“brainpath”becomessowellworn;thepatternofbrain-centresbecomessowellconnectedupbycontinualuse,thatnervecurrentfindsarouteofpracticallynoresistance,andsoitalwaystakesalmostexactlythesamecourse.
Weallknowthepersonwhohasastringofstockanecdotes.Weallknowtoothepersonwhohascertainstockargumentsandopinionswhichheexpresses,almostinthesamewords,wheneverhereceivesthe“cue.”Weallknowmenandwomenwhosemindsworklikegramophones.Putthemontothe“record”aboutthegoodolddays;oraboutprohibition禁酒令(Seenote7onP173);oraboutthewickedcapitalist;oraboutthelazyandimprovidentworkers;oraboutthecountrygoingtothedogs;oraboutthemoderngirl;orsomelong,tediousanecdoteaboutwhatIsaidtohim,andwhathesaidtome,andIsaid…andhesaid…andthenItoldhimstraight…!
Allwehavetodoistostarthimoff---andnothingonearthcanstophim---untilthe“record”hasrunout!
Thesamethingistrueofopinionsandbeliefsofallkindsof.Aftertheyhavebeenheldacertainlengthoftime,theybecome,asitwere,sostampedin(盖上了烙印)bycontinualusethatitisalmostimpossible