电子信息工程专业ProgressinComputers微机发展简史毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文.docx

电子信息工程专业ProgressinComputers微机发展简史毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文.docx

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电子信息工程专业ProgressinComputers微机发展简史毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

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微机发展简史

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ProgressinComputers

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电子信息工程

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ProgressinComputers

PrestigeLecturedeliveredtoIEE,Cambridge,on5February2004

MauriceWilkes

ComputerLaboratory

UniversityofCambridge

Thefirststoredprogramcomputersbegantoworkaround1950.TheonewebuiltinCambridge,theEDSACwasfirstusedinthesummerof1949.

Theseearlyexperimentalcomputerswerebuiltbypeoplelikemyselfwithvaryingbackgrounds.Weallhadextensiveexperienceinelectronicengineeringandwereconfidentthatthatexperiencewouldstandusingoodstead.Thisprovedtrue,althoughwehadsomenewthingstolearn.Themostimportantofthesewasthattransientsmustbetreatedcorrectly;whatwouldcauseaharmlessflashonthescreenofatelevisionsetcouldleadtoaseriouserrorinacomputer.

Asfarascomputingcircuitswereconcerned,wefoundourselveswithanembarassderichess.Forexample,wecouldusevacuumtubediodesforgatesaswedidintheEDSACorpentodeswithcontrolsignalsonbothgrids,asystemwidelyusedelsewhere.Thissortofchoicepersistedandthetermfamiliesoflogiccameintouse.ThosewhohaveworkedinthecomputerfieldwillrememberTTL,ECLandCMOS.Ofthese,CMOShasnowbecomedominant.

Inthoseearlyyears,theIEEwasstilldominatedbypowerengineeringandwehadtofightanumberofmajorbattlesinordertogetradioengineeringalongwiththerapidlydevelopingsubjectofelectronics.dubbedintheIEElightcurrentelectricalengineering.properlyrecognisedasanactivityinitsownright.Irememberthatwehadsomedifficultyinorganisingaconferencebecausethepowerengineers’waysofdoingthingswerenotourways.AminorsourceofirritationwasthatallIEEpublishedpaperswereexpectedtostartwithalengthystatementofearlierpractice,somethingdifficulttodowhentherewasnoearlierpractice

Consolidationinthe1960s

Bythelate50sorearly1960s,theheroicpioneeringstagewasoverandthecomputerfieldwasstartingupinrealearnest.Thenumberofcomputersintheworldhadincreasedandtheyweremuchmorereliablethantheveryearlyones.Tothoseyearswecanascribethefirststepsinhighlevellanguagesandthefirstoperatingsystems.Experimentaltime-sharingwasbeginning,andultimatelycomputergraphicswastocomealong.

Aboveall,transistorsbegantoreplacevacuumtubes.Thischangepresentedaformidablechallengetotheengineersoftheday.Theyhadtoforgetwhattheyknewaboutcircuitsandstartagain.Itcanonlybesaidthattheymeasuredupsuperblywelltothechallengeandthatthechangecouldnothavegonemoresmoothly.

Soonitwasfoundpossibletoputmorethanonetransistoronthesamebitofsilicon,andthiswasthebeginningofintegratedcircuits.Astimewenton,asufficientlevelofintegrationwasreachedforonechiptoaccommodateenoughtransistorsforasmallnumberofgatesorflipflops.Thisledtoarangeofchipsknownasthe7400series.Thegatesandflipflopswereindependentofoneanotherandeachhaditsownpins.Theycouldbeconnectedbyoff-chipwiringtomakeacomputeroranythingelse.

Thesechipsmadeanewkindofcomputerpossible.Itwascalledaminicomputer.Itwassomethinglessthatamainframe,butstillverypowerful,andmuchmoreaffordable.Insteadofhavingoneexpensivemainframeforthewholeorganisation,abusinessorauniversitywasabletohaveaminicomputerforeachmajordepartment.

Beforelongminicomputersbegantospreadandbecomemorepowerful.Theworldwashungryforcomputingpowerandithadbeenveryfrustratingforindustrynottobeabletosupplyitonthescalerequiredandatareasonablecost.Minicomputerstransformedthesituation.

Thesingle-chipcomputer

Ateachshrinkagethenumberofchipswasreducedandtherewerefewerwiresgoingfromonechiptoanother.Thisledtoanadditionalincrementinoverallspeed,sincethetransmissionofsignalsfromonechiptoanothertakesalongtime.

Eventually,shrinkageproceededtothepointatwhichthewholeprocessorexceptforthecachescouldbeputononechip.Thisenabledaworkstationtobebuiltthatout-performedthefastestminicomputeroftheday,andtheresultwastokilltheminicomputerstonedead.Asweallknow,thishadsevereconsequencesforthecomputerindustryandforthepeopleworkinginit.

FromtheabovetimethehighdensityCMOSsiliconchipwasCockoftheRoost.Shrinkagewentonuntilmillionsoftransistorscouldbeputonasinglechipandthespeedwentupinproportion.

Processordesignersbegantoexperimentwithnewarchitecturalfeaturesdesignedtogiveextraspeed.Oneverysuccessfulexperimentconcernedmethodsforpredictingthewayprogrambrancheswouldgo.Itwasasurprisetomehowsuccessfulthiswas.Itledtoasignificantspeedingupofprogramexecutionandotherformsofpredictionfollowed

Equallysurprisingiswhatithasbeenfoundpossibletoputonasinglechipcomputerbywayofadvancedfeatures.Forexample,featuresthathadbeendevelopedfortheIBMModel91.thegiantcomputeratthetopoftheSystem360range.arenowtobefoundonmicrocomputers

Murphy’sLawremainedinastateofsuspension.Nolongerdiditmakesensetobuildexperimentalcomputersoutofchipswithasmallscaleofintegration,suchasthatprovidedbythe7400series.Peoplewhowantedtodohardwareresearchatthecircuitlevelhadnooptionbuttodesignchipsandseekforwaystogetthemmade.Foratime,thiswaspossible,ifnoteasy

Unfortunately,therehassincebeenadramaticincreaseinthecostofmakingchips,mainlybecauseoftheincreasedcostofmakingmasksforlithography,aphotographicprocessusedinthemanufactureofchips.Ithas,inconsequence,againbecomeverydifficulttofinancethemakingofresearchchips,andthisisacurrentlycauseforsomeconcern.

TheSemiconductorRoadMap

Theextensiveresearchanddevelopmentworkunderlyingtheaboveadvanceshasbeenmadepossiblebyaremarkablecooperativeeffortonthepartoftheinternationalsemiconductorindustry.

AtonetimeUSmonopolylawswouldprobablyhavemadeitillegalforUScompaniestoparticipateinsuchaneffort.Howeverabout1980significantandfarreachingchangestookplaceinthelaws.Theconceptofpre-competitiveresearchwasintroduced.Companiescannowcollaborateatthepre-competitivestageandlatergoontodevelopproductsoftheirownintheregularcompetitivemanner.

Theagentbywhichthepre-competitiveresearchinthesemi-conductorindustryismanagedisknownastheSemiconductorIndustryAssociation（SIA）.ThishasbeenactiveasaUSorganisationsince1992anditbecameinternationalin1998.Membershipisopentoanyorganisationthatcancontributetotheresearcheffort.

EverytwoyearsSIAproducesanewversionofadocumentknownastheInternationalTechnologicalRoadmapforSemiconductors（ITRS）,withanupdateintheintermediateyears.Thefirstvolumebearingthetitle‘Roadmap’wasissuedin1994buttworeports,writtenin1992anddistributedin1993,areregardedasthetruebeginningoftheseries.

Successiveroadmapsaimatprovidingthebestavailableindustrialconsensusonthewaythattheindustryshouldmoveforward.Theysetoutingreatdetail.overa15yearhorizon.thetargetsthatmustbeachievedifthenumberofcomponentsonachipistobedoubledeveryeighteenmonths.thatis,ifMoore’slawistobemaintained.-andifthecostperchipistofall.

Inthecaseofsomeitems,thewayaheadisclear.Inothers,manufacturingproblemsareforeseenandsolutionstothemareknown,althoughnotyetfullyworkedout;theseareasarecolouredyellowinthetables.Areasforwhichproblemsareforeseen,butforwhichnomanufacturablesolutionsareknown,arecolouredred.RedareasarereferredtoasRedBrickWalls.

ThetargetssetoutintheRoadmapshaveprovedrealisticaswellaschallenging,andtheprogressoftheindustryasawholehasfollowedtheRoadmapsclosely.Thisisaremarkableachievementanditmaybesaidthatthemeritsofcooperationandcompetitionhavebeencombinedinanadmirablemanner.

Itistobenotedthatthemajorstrategicdecisionsaffectingtheprogressoftheindustryhavebeentakenatthepre-competitivelevelinrelativeopenness,ratherthanbehindcloseddoors.Theseincludetheprogressiontolargerwafers.

By1995,Ihadbeguntowonderexactlywhatwouldhappenwhentheinevitablepointwasreachedatwhichitbecameimpossibletomaketransistorsanysmaller.MyenquiriesledmetovisitARPAheadquartersinWashingtonDC,whereIwasgivenacopyoftherecentlyproducedRoadmapfor1994.Thismadeitplainthatseriousproblemswouldarisewhenafeaturesizeof100nmwasreached,aneventprojectedtohappenin2007,with70nmfollowingin2010.Theyearforwhichthecomingof100nm（orrather90nm）wasprojectedwasinlaterRoadmapsmovedforwardto2004andintheeventtheindustrygottherealittlesooner.

Ipresentedtheaboveinformationfromthe1994Roadmap,alongwithsuchotherinformationthatIcouldobtain,inalecturetotheIEEinLondon,entitledTheCMOSend-pointandrelatedtopicsinComputinganddeliveredon8February1996.

TheideathatIthenha