The paranoid style in American politics.docx

The paranoid style in American politics.docx

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TheparanoidstyleinAmericanpolitics

TheParanoidStyleinAmericanPolitics

By RichardHofstadter

IthadbeenaroundalongtimebeforetheRadicalRightdiscoveredit–anditstargetshaverangedfrom“theinternationalbankers”toMasons,Jesuits,andmunitionsmakers.

Americanpoliticshasoftenbeenanarenaforangryminds.Inrecentyearswehaveseenangrymindsatworkmainlyamongextremeright-wingers,whohavenowdemonstratedintheGoldwatermovementhowmuchpoliticalleveragecanbegotoutoftheanimositiesandpassionsofasmallminority.ButbehindthisIbelievethereisastyleofmindthatisfarfromnewandthatisnotnecessarilyright-wing.Icallittheparanoidstylesimplybecausenootherwordadequatelyevokesthesenseofheatedexaggeration,suspiciousness,andconspiratorialfantasythatIhaveinmind.Inusingtheexpression“paranoidstyle”Iamnotspeakinginaclinicalsense,butborrowingaclinicaltermforotherpurposes.Ihaveneitherthecompetencenorthedesiretoclassifyanyfiguresofthepastorpresentascertifiablelunatics.Infact,theideaoftheparanoidstyleasaforceinpoliticswouldhavelittlecontemporaryrelevanceorhistoricalvalueifitwereappliedonlytomenwithprofoundlydisturbedminds.Itistheuseofparanoidmodesofexpressionbymoreorlessnormalpeoplethatmakesthephenomenonsignificant.

Ofcoursethistermispejorative,anditismeanttobe;theparanoidstylehasagreateraffinityforbadcausesthangood.Butnothingreallypreventsasoundprogramordemandfrombeingadvocatedintheparanoidstyle.Stylehasmoretodowiththewayinwhichideasarebelievedthanwiththetruthorfalsityoftheircontent.Iaminterestedhereingettingatourpoliticalpsychologythroughourpoliticalrhetoric.Theparanoidstyleisanoldandrecurrentphenomenoninourpubliclifewhichhasbeenfrequentlylinkedwithmovementsofsuspiciousdiscontent.

HereisSenatorMcCarthy,speakinginJune1951abouttheparloussituationoftheUnitedStates:

Howcanweaccountforourpresentsituationunlesswebelievethatmenhighinthisgovernmentareconcertingtodeliverustodisaster?

Thismustbetheproductofagreatconspiracyonascalesoimmenseastodwarfanyprevioussuchventureinthehistoryofman.Aconspiracyofinfamysoblackthat,whichitisfinallyexposed,itsprincipalsshallbeforeverdeservingofthemaledictionsofallhonestmen….Whatcanbemadeofthisunbrokenseriesofdecisionsandactscontributingtothestrategyofdefeat?

Theycannotbeattributedtoincompetence….Thelawsofprobabilitywoulddictatethatpartof…[the]decisionswouldservethecountry’sinterest.

Nowturnbackfiftyyearstoamanifestosignedin1895byanumberofleadersofthePopulistparty:

Asearlyas1865–66aconspiracywasenteredintobetweenthegoldgamblersofEuropeandAmerica….Fornearlythirtyyearstheseconspiratorshavekeptthepeoplequarrelingoverlessimportantmatterswhiletheyhavepursuedwithunrelentingzealtheironecentralpurpose….Everydeviceoftreachery,everyresourceofstatecraft,andeveryartificeknowntothesecretcabalsoftheinternationalgoldringarebeingusedtodealablowtotheprosperityofthepeopleandthefinancialandcommercialindependenceofthecountry.

Next,aTexasnewspaperarticleof1855:

…ItisanotoriousfactthattheMonarchsofEuropeandthePopeofRomeareatthisverymomentplottingourdestructionandthreateningtheextinctionofourpolitical,civil,andreligiousinstitutions.WehavethebestreasonsforbelievingthatcorruptionhasfounditswayintoourExecutiveChamber,andthatourExecutiveheadistaintedwiththeinfectiousvenomofCatholicism….ThePopehasrecentlysenthisambassadorofstatetothiscountryonasecretcommission,theeffectofwhichisanextraordinaryboldnessoftheCatholicchurchthroughouttheUnitedStates….TheseminionsofthePopeareboldlyinsultingourSenators;reprimandingourStatesmen;propagatingtheadulterousunionofChurchandState;abusingwithfoulcalumnyallgovernmentsbutCatholic,andspewingoutthebitterestexecrationsonallProtestantism.TheCatholicsintheUnitedStatesreceivefromabroadmorethan$200,000annuallyforthepropagationoftheircreed.Addtothisthevastrevenuescollectedhere….

Thesequotationsgivethekeynoteofthestyle.InthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesonefindit,forexample,intheanti-Masonicmovement,thenativistandanti-Catholicmovement,incertainspokesmenofabolitionismwhoregardedtheUnitedStatesasbeinginthegripofaslaveholders’conspiracy,inmanyalarmistsabouttheMormons,insomeGreenbackandPopulistwriterswhoconstructedagreatconspiracyofinternationalbankers,intheexposureofamunitionsmakers’conspiracyofWorldWarI,inthepopularleft-wingpress,inthecontemporaryAmericanrightwing,andonbothsidesoftheracecontroversytoday,amongWhiteCitizens’CouncilsandBlackMuslims.Idonotproposetotrytotracethevariationsoftheparanoidstylethatcanbefoundinallthesemovements,butwillconfinemyselftoafewleadingepisodesinourpasthistoryinwhichthestyleemergedinfullandarchetypalsplendor.

IlluminismandMasonry

Ibeginwithaparticularlyrevealingepisode–thepanicthatbrokeoutinsomequartersattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyovertheallegedlysubversiveactivitiesoftheBavarianIlluminati.ThispanicwasapartofthegeneralreactiontotheFrenchRevolution.IntheUnitedStatesitwasheightenedbytheresponseofcertainmen,mostlyinNewEnglandandamongtheestablishedclergy,totheriseofJeffersoniandemocracy.Illuminismhadbeenstartedin1776byAdamWeishaupt,aprofessoroflawattheUniversityofIngolstadt.ItsteachingstodayseemtobenomorethananotherversionofEnlightenmentrationalism,spicedwiththeanticlericalatmosphereofeighteenth-centuryBavaria.Itwasasomewhatnaïveandutopianmovementwhichaspiredultimatelytobringthehumanraceundertherulesofreason.ItshumanitarianrationalismappearstohaveacquiredafairlywideinfluenceinMasoniclodges.

AmericansfirstlearnedofIlluminismin1797,fromavolumepublishedinEdinburgh（laterreprintedinNewYork）underthetitle, ProofsofaConspiracyAgainstAlltheReligionsandGovernmentsofEurope,CarriedonintheSecretMeetingsofFreeMasons,Illuminati,andReadingSocieties.Itsauthorwasawell-knownScottishscientist,JohnRobison,whohadhimselfbeenasomewhatcasualadherentofMasonryinBritain,butwhoseimaginationhadbeeninflamedbywhatheconsideredtobethefarlessinnocentMasonicmovementontheContinent.Robisonseemstohavemadehisworkasfactualashecould,butwhenhecametoestimatingthemoralcharacterandthepoliticalinfluenceofIlluminism,hemadethecharacteristicparanoidleapintofantasy.Theassociation,hethought,wasformed“fortheexpresspurposeof rootingoutallreligiousestablishments,andoverturningalltheexistinggovernmentsofeurope.”Ithadbecome“onegreatandwickedprojectfermentingandworkingalloverEurope.”AndtoitheattributedacentralroleinbringingabouttheFrenchRevolution.Hesawitasalibertine,anti-Christianmovement,giventothecorruptionofwomen,thecultivationofsensualpleasures,andtheviolationofpropertyrights.Itsmembershadplansformakingateathatcausedabortion–asecretsubstancethat“blindsorkillswhenspurtedintheface,”andadevicethatsoundslikeastenchbomb–a“methodforfillingabedchamberwithpestilentialvapours.”

ThesenotionswerequicktomakethemselvesfeltinAmerica.InMay1798,aministeroftheMassachusettsCongregationalestablishmentinBoston,JedidiahMorse,deliveredatimelysermontotheyoungcountry,whichwasthensharplydividedbetweenJeffersoniansandFederalists,FrancophilesandAnglomen.HavingreadRobison,MorsewasconvincedofaJacobinicalplottouchedoffbyIlluminism,andthatthecountryshouldberalliedtodefenditself.HiswarningswereheededthroughoutNewEnglandwhereverFederalistsbroodedabouttherisingtideofreligiousinfidelityorJeffersoniandemocracy.TimothyDwight,thepresidentofYale,followedMorse’ssermonwithaFourth-of-Julydiscourseon TheDutyofAmericansinthePresentCrisis,inwhichheheldforthagainsttheAntichristinhisownglowingrhetoric.SoonthepulpitsofNewEnglandwereringingwithdenunciationsoftheIlluminati,asthoughthecountrywereswarmingwiththem.

Theanti-Masonicmovementofthelate1820sandthe1830stookupandextendedtheobsessionwithconspiracy.Atfirst,thismovementmayseemtobenomorethananextensionorrepetitionoftheanti-MasonicthemesoundedintheoutcryagainsttheBavarianIlluminati.Butwhereasthepanicofthe1790swasconfinedmainlytoNewEnglandandlinkedtoanultraconservativepointofview,thelateranti-MasonicmovementaffectedmanypartsofthenorthernUnitedStates,andwasintimatelylinkedwithpopulardemocracyandruralegalitarianism.Althoughanti-Masonryhappenedtobeanti-Jacksonian（JacksonwasaMason）,itmanifestedthesameanimusagainsttheclosureofopportunityforthecommonmanandagainstaristocraticinstitutionsthatonefindsintheJacksoniancrusadeagainsttheBankoftheUnitedStates.

Theanti-Masonicmovementwasaproductnotmerelyofnaturalenthusiasmbutalsoofthevicissitudesofpartypolitics.Itwasjoinedandusedbyagreatmanymenwhodidnotfullyshareitsoriginalanti-Masonicfeelings.Itattractedthesupportofseveralreputablestatesmenwhohadonlymildsympathywithitsfundamentalbias,butwhoaspoliticianscouldnotaffordtoignoreit.Still,itwasafolkmovementofco