0131Reading商业革命的影响+科学革命的欧洲环境+地球能量循环.docx

0131Reading商业革命的影响+科学革命的欧洲环境+地球能量循环.docx

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0131Reading商业革命的影响+科学革命的欧洲环境+地球能量循环

EffectsoftheCommercialRevolution

InthethirdandthesecondmillenniaB.C.long-distancetradesupposedlyhadthecharacterofanexpedition.BythestartofthelastmillenniumB.C.,however,anewapproachtoengaginginsuchtradeemerged.Basedontheprincipleofcolorization,itwaspioneeredbythePhoeniciansandGreeks,whoestablishedcoloniesalongtheMediterraneanSea.Thenewapproachtolong-distancetrade,knownasthecommercialrevolution,ledtochangesinanumberofpoliticalandeconomicpatterns.

Forthefirsttime,theplantingofcoloniesindistantlandsbecamepossible.ThePhoeniciansettlementsinthecentralandwesternMediterranean,suchasCarthage,andtheslightlylaterestablishmentofGreekcoloniesareearlyexamples,whilethesettlementofsouthArabiansinEritreaaroundthemiddleofthelastmillenniummarksthesubsequentspreadofthissortofcommercialconsequencetotheHornofAfrica.InthethirdorsecondmillenniaB.C.,astatesuchasEgyptmightcolonizeareasoutsideitsheartland,suchasNubia.Butthiscolonizationcomprisedmilitaryoutpostsandethnicsettlementsthatwereplantedtoholdthecontiguousterritoriesofalandempire,notdistantlocalitiesfarseparatedfromthehomecountry.

Thecommercialrevolutionconstructedtheeconomicbasisaswellforanewkindoftownorcity,anurbancenterthataboveallservicedtradeandwashometothecraftsandoccupationalspecializationsthatwentalongwithcommercialdevelopment.Theurbanlocationsofearliertimescommonlydrewtradesimplybecausetheirpopulationshadincludedaprivilegedeliteofpotentialconsumers.Suchtownshadariseninthefirstplaceaspoliticalandreligiouscentersofthesociety,theyattractedpopulationbecausepowerandinfluenceresidesthereandaccesstopositionandwealthcouldbegainedthroughservicetotheroyalorpriestlyleadership.

WherevertheeffectsofthecommercialrevolutionpenetratedoverthelastmillenniumB.C.,kingsandemperorsincreasinglylosttheirabilitytotreattradeasaroyaltysponsoredactivity,intendedtopreservethecommoditiesoftradeastheprivilegesofimmemorialpowerandposition.Instead,theirpoliciesshiftedtowardcontrollinggeographicalaccessibilitytotheproductsofcommerceandtoensuringsecurityandotherconditionsthatattractedandenhancedthemovementofgoods.Nolongercouldkingsrelyonagriculturallysupportedandreligiouslybasedclaimstoanabilitytoprotecttheirlandsandpeople;nowtheyalsohadtoovertlysupportthematerialprosperityoftheirpeoplecomparedtoothersocieties.Andratherthanexertingamonopolyoverprestigecommodities,ashadEgyptiankingsofthethirdandsecondmillennia,andredistributingsuchcommoditiesinwaysdesignedtoreinforcetheallegianceoftheirsubjectsandenhancetheawesomenessoftheirposition,rulersturnedtothetaxationoftradeandtothecreationandcontrolofcurrency,moreandmorerelyingondutiesandotherrevenuestosupporttheapparatusofthestate.Itwasnohistoricalaccidentthatthefirstmetalcoinageintheworldbegantobemadeineighth-centuryAnatolia（modernTurkey）andthattheuseofcoinsrapidlyspreadwiththeexpandingcommercialrevolution.Thematerialbasesandthelegitimizationsofstateauthorityasweknowthemtodayhadbeguntotakeshape.

Thecommercialrevolutiontendedalsotospreadaparticularpatternofexchange.TheearlycommercialcentersoftheMediterraneanmostcharacteristicallyofferedmanufacturedgoods—purpledye,metalgoods,wine,oliveoil,andsoforth—fortherawmaterialsorthepartiallyprocessednaturalproductsofotherregions.Asthecommercialrevolutionspread,thiskindofexchangetendedtospreadwithit,withtherecentlyaddedareasofcommerceprovidingnewkindsofrawmaterialsornewsourcesforfamiliarproductsofthenaturalworld,andthelongerestablishedcommercialcenters—whichmightthemselveshavelainatthemarginsofthistransformation—producing,oractingastheintermediaries—producing,oractingastheintermediariesinthetransmissionof,manufacturedcommodities.India,forinstance,haddevelopedbythetumoftheearintoamajorexporterofitsowncottontextiles,aswellasnaturallyoccurringmaterials,suchasgemsofvariouskinds,andatthesametimeitsmerchantsweretheintermediariesofthesilktrade.

Paragraph1

InthethirdandthesecondmillenniaB.C.long-distancetradesupposedlyhadthecharacterofanexpedition.BythestartofthelastmillenniumB.C.,however,anewapproachtoengaginginsuchtradeemerged.Basedontheprincipleofcolonization,itwaspioneeredbythePhoeniciansandGreeks,whoestablishedcoloniesalongtheMediterraneanSea.Thenewapproachtolong-distancetrade,knownasthecommercialrevolution,ledtochangesinanumberofpoliticalandeconomicpatterns.

1.Theword“pioneered”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto

¡adopted

¡described

¡demonstrated

¡introduced

Paragraph2

Forthefirsttime,theplantingofcoloniesindistantlandsbecamepossible.ThePhoeniciansettlementsinthecentralandwesternMediterranean,suchasCarthage,andtheslightlylaterestablishmentofGreekcoloniesareearlyexamples,whilethesettlementofsouthArabiansinEritreaaroundthemiddleofthelastmillenniummarksthesubsequentspreadofthissortofcommercialconsequencetotheHornofAfrica.InthethirdorsecondmillenniaB.C.,astatesuchasEgyptmightcolonizeareasoutsideitsheartland,suchasNubia.Butthiscolonizationcomprisedmilitaryoutpostsandethnicsettlementsthatwereplantedtoholdthecontiguousterritoriesofalandempire,notdistantlocalitiesfarseparatedfromthehomecountry.

2.Allofthefollowinggroupsarementionedinparagraph2asestablishingdistanttradingoutpostsinthelastmillenniumB.C.EXCEPT

¡theGreeks

¡theEgyptians

¡thePhoenicians

¡thesouthArabians

3.Theword“subsequent”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto

¡initial

¡anticipated

¡later

¡increasing

4.Inparagraph2,whydoestheauthormentionthecolonizationofNubiabytheEgyptians?

¡Toprovethatcolonizationwasfirstcarriedoutbythemilitary

¡ToindicatethatEgyptwasamajormilitarypowerinthethirdandsecondmillenniaB.C.

¡Toillustratehowlargethegeographicareaofcolonizationhadbecomeoverseveralmillennia

¡ToshowthatthepurposeofcolonizationduringthethirdandsecondmillenniaB.C.differedfromthatofthelastmillenniumB.C.

5.Theword“comprised”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto

¡resultedin

¡focusedon

¡wasinspiredby

¡consistedof

Paragraph3

Thecommercialrevolutionconstructedtheeconomicbasisaswellforanewkindoftownorcity,anurbancenterthataboveallservicedtradeandwashometothecraftsandoccupationalspecializationsthatwentalongwithcommercialdevelopment.Theurbanlocationsofearliertimescommonlydrewtradesimplybecausetheirpopulationshadincludedaprivilegedeliteofpotentialconsumers.Suchtownshadariseninthefirstplaceaspoliticalandreligiouscentersofthesociety,theyattractedpopulationbecausepowerandinfluenceresidesthereandaccesstopositionandwealthcouldbegainedthroughservicetotheroyalorpriestlyleadership.

6.Accordingtoparagraph3,beforetheemergenceofthecommercialrevolution,trade

¡enabledcraftspeopleandoccupationalspecialiststogainpowerandinfluenceinsociety

¡centeredontherulingeliteandthosegroupscloselyassociatedwiththem

¡wasprimarilyconductedbypeopleservingtheroyalandreligiousleadership

¡wasamajorreasonwhyurbancenterswereestablished

Paragraph4

WherevertheeffectsofthecommercialrevolutionpenetratedoverthelastmillenniumB.C.,kingsandemperorsincreasinglylosttheirabilitytotreattradeasaroyaltysponsoredactivity,intendedtopreservethecommoditiesoftradeastheprivilegesofimmemorialpowerandposition.Instead,theirpoliciesshiftedtowardcontrollinggeographicalaccessibilitytotheproductsofcommerceandtoensuringsecurityandotherconditionsthatattractedandenhancedthemovementofgoods.Nolongercouldkingsrelyonagriculturallysupportedandreligiouslybasedclaimstoanabilitytoprotecttheirlandsandpeople;nowtheyalsohadtoovertlysupportthematerialprosperityoftheirpeoplecomparedtoothersocieties.Andratherthanexertingamonopolyoverprestigecommodities,ashadEgyptiankingsofthethirdandsecondmillennia,andredistributingsuchcommoditiesinwaysdesignedtoreinforcetheallegianceoftheirsubjectsandenhancetheawesomenessoftheirposition,rulersturnedtothetaxationoftradeandtothecreationandcontrolofcurrency,moreandmorerelyingondutiesandotherrevenuestosupporttheapparatusofthestate.Itwasnohistoricalaccidentthatthefirstmetalcoinageintheworldbegantobemadeineighth-centuryAnatolia（modernTurkey）andthattheuseofcoinsrapidlyspreadwiththeexpandingcommercialrevolution.Thematerialbasesandthelegitimizationsofstateauthorityasweknowthemtodayhadbeguntotakeshape.

7.Theword“enhanced”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto

¡improved

¡influenced

¡protected

¡necessitated

8.Theword“reinforce”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto

¡demand

¡strengthen

¡earn

¡repay

9.Accordingtoparagraph4,asthecommercialrevolutionexpanded,rulersfocusedon

¡taxationandthedevelopmentandcontrolofmoney

¡monopolizingprestigecommodities

¡distributingprestigecommoditiestoensuretheallegianceoftheirsubjects

¡protectingtheirlandtolegitimizetheirauthority

10.Whatcanbeinferredfromparagra