立法分支.docx

立法分支.docx

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立法分支

立法分支：

国会的权力范畴

TheLegislativeBranch:

TheReachofCongress

05December2013

"Governmentimpliesthepowerofmakinglaws."

–AlexanderHamilton,TheFederalistPapers,1787–1788

ArticleIoftheConstitutiongrantsalllegislativepowersofthefederalgovernmenttoaCongressdividedintotwochambers,aSenateandaHouseofRepresentatives.TheSenateiscomposedoftwomembersfromeachstateasprovidedbytheConstitution.Itscurrentmembershipis100.MembershipintheHouseisbasedoneachstate’spopulation,anditssizeisthereforenotspecifiedintheConstitution.Itscurrentmembershipis435.

Formorethan100yearsaftertheadoptionoftheConstitution,senatorswerenotelectedbydirectvoteofthepeoplebutchosenbystatelegislaturesandlookedonasrepresentativesoftheirhomestates.Theirdutywastoensurethattheirstatesweretreatedequallyinalllegislation.TheSeventeenthAmendment,adoptedin1913,providedfordirectelectionoftheSenate.

ThedelegatestotheConstitutionalConventionreasonedthatiftwoseparategroups—onerepresentingstategovernmentsandonerepresentingthepeople—mustbothapproveeveryproposedlaw,therewouldbelittledangerofCongresspassinglawshurriedlyorcarelessly.OnehousecouldalwayschecktheotherinthemanneroftheBritishParliament.PassageoftheSeventeenthAmendmentdidnotsubstantiallyalterthisbalanceofpowerbetweenthetwohouses.

WhiletherewasintensedebateintheconventionoverthemakeupandpowersofCongress,manydelegatesbelievedthatthelegislativebranchwouldberelativelyunimportant.AfewbelievedthattheCongresswouldconcernitselflargelywithexternalaffairs,leavingdomesticmatterstostateandlocalgovernments.Theseviewswereclearlymistaken.TheCongresshasprovedtobeexceedinglyactive,withbroadpowersandauthorityinallmattersofnationalconcern.Whileitsstrengthvis-à-vistheexecutivebranchhaswaxedandwanedatdifferentperiodsofAmericanhistory,theCongresshasneverbeenarubberstampforpresidentialdecisions.

QualificationsofMembersofCongress

TheConstitutionrequiresthatU.S.senatorsmustbeatleast30yearsofage,citizensoftheUnitedStatesforatleastnineyears,andresidentsofthestatesfromwhichtheyareelected.MembersoftheHouseofRepresentativesmustbeatleast25,citizensforsevenyears,andresidentsofthestatesfromwhichtheyareelected.ThestatesmaysetadditionalrequirementsforelectiontoCongress,buttheConstitutiongiveseachhousethepowertodeterminethequalificationsofitsmembers.

Eachstateisentitledtotwosenators.Thus,RhodeIsland,thesmalleststate,withanareaofabout3,156squarekilometers,hasthesamesenatorialrepresentationasAlaska,thebiggeststate,withanareaofsome1,524,640squarekilometers.Wyoming,withanestimated480,000persons,hasrepresentationintheSenateequaltothatofCalifornia,withitspopulationof32,270,000.

ThetotalnumberofmembersoftheHouseofRepresentativesisdeterminedbyCongress.Thatnumberisdividedamongthestatesaccordingtotheirpopulations.Regardlessofitspopulation,everystateisconstitutionallyguaranteedatleastonememberoftheHouse.Atpresent,sevenstates—Alaska,Delaware,Montana,NorthDakota,SouthDakota,VermontandWyoming—haveonlyonerepresentative.Ontheotherhand,fourhighlypopulousstateshavemorethan20representatives—Californiaalonehas53.

TheConstitutionprovidesforanationalcensusevery10yearsandaredistributionofHouseseatsaccordingtopopulationshifts.Undertheoriginalconstitutionalprovision,thenumberofrepresentativeswastobenomorethanoneforeach30,000citizens.Therewere65membersinthefirstHouse,andthenumberwasincreasedto106afterthefirstcensusin1790.Hadthe1-to-30,000formulabeenadheredtopermanently,populationgrowthintheUnitedStateswouldhavebroughtthetotalnumberofrepresentativestoabout7,000.Instead,theformulahasbeenadjustedovertheyears,andtodaytheratioofrepresentativestopeopleisabout1-to-700,000.

Statelegislaturesdividethestatesintocongressionaldistricts,whichmustbesubstantiallyequalinpopulation.Everytwoyears,thevotersofeachdistrictchoosearepresentativeforCongress.

Senatorsarechoseninstatewideelectionsheldineven-numberedyears.Thesenatorialtermissixyears,andeverytwoyearsone-thirdoftheSenatestandsforelection.Hence,two-thirdsofthesenatorsarealwayspersonswithsomelegislativeexperienceatthenationallevel.

ItistheoreticallypossiblefortheHousetobecomposedentirelyoflegislativenovices.Inpractice,however,mostmembersarereelectedseveraltimes,andtheHouse,liketheSenate,canalwayscountonacoregroupofexperiencedlegislators.

SincemembersoftheHouseservetwo-yearterms,thelifeofaCongressisconsideredtobetwoyears.TheTwentiethAmendmenttotheU.S.ConstitutionprovidesthattheCongresswillconveneinregularsessioneachJanuary3,unlessCongressfixesadifferentdate.TheCongressremainsinsessionuntilitsmembersvotetoadjourn—usuallylateintheyear.Thepresidentmaycallaspecialsessionwhenhethinksitnecessary.SessionsareheldintheCapitolbuildinginWashington,D.C.

PowersoftheHouseandSenate

EachhouseofCongresshasthepowertointroducelegislationonanysubjectexceptraisingrevenue,whichmustoriginateintheHouseofRepresentatives.Thelargestatesmaythusappeartohavemoreinfluenceoverthepublicpursethanthesmallstates.Inpractice,however,eachhousecanvoteagainstlegislationpassedbytheotherhouse.TheSenatemaydisapproveaHouserevenuebill—oranybill,forthatmatter—oraddamendmentsthatchangeitsnature.Inthatevent,aconferencecommitteemadeupofmembersfrombothhousesmustworkoutacompromiseacceptabletobothsidesbeforethebillbecomeslaw.

TheSenatealsohascertainpowersespeciallyreservedtothatbody,includingtheauthoritytoconfirmpresidentialappointmentsofhighofficialsandambassadorsofthefederalgovernment,aswellasauthoritytoratifyalltreatiesbyatwo-thirdsvote.Ineitherinstance,anegativevoteintheSenatenullifiesexecutiveaction.

Inthecaseofimpeachmentoffederalofficials,theHousehasthesolerighttobringchargesofmisconductthatcanleadtoanimpeachmenttrial.TheSenatehasthesolepowertotryimpeachmentcasesandtofindofficialsguiltyornotguilty.Afindingofguiltresultsintheremovalofthefederalofficialfrompublicoffice.

ThebroadpowersofthewholeCongressarespelledoutinArticleIoftheConstitution:

•Tolevyandcollecttaxes.

•Toborrowmoneyforthepublictreasury.

•Tomakerulesandregulationsgoverningcommerceamongthestatesandwithforeigncountries.

•Tomakeuniformrulesforthenaturalizationofforeigncitizens.

•Tocoinmoney,stateitsvalue,andprovideforthepunishmentofcounterfeiters.

•Tosetthestandardsforweightsandmeasures.

•Toestablishbankruptcylawsforthecountryasawhole.

•Toestablishpostofficesandpostroads.

•Toissuepatentsandcopyrights.

•Tosetupasystemoffederalcourts.

•Topunishpiracy.

•Todeclarewar.

•Toraiseandsupportarmies.

•Toprovideforanavy.

•Tocalloutthemilitiatoenforcefederallaws,suppresslawlessness,orrepelinvasions.

•Tomakealllawsfortheseatofgovernment（Washington,D.C.）.

•TomakealllawsnecessarytoenforcetheConstitution.

Afewofthesepowersarenowoutdated,buttheyremainineffect.

TheTenthAmendmentsetsdefinitelimitsoncongressionalauthority,byprovidingthatpowersnotdelegatedtothenationalgovernmentarereservedtothestatesortothepeople.Inaddition,theConstitutionspecificallyforbidscertainactsbyCongress.Itmaynot:

•Suspendthewritofhabeascorpus—arequirementthatthoseaccusedofcrimesbebroughtbeforeajudgeorcourtbeforebeingimprisoned—unlessnecessaryintimeofrebellionorinvasion.

•Passlawsthatcondemnpersonsforcrimesorunlawfulactswithoutatrial.

•Passanylawthatretroactivelymakesaspecificactacrime.

•Levydirecttaxesoncitizens,exceptonthebasisofacensusalreadytaken.

•Taxexportsfromanyonestate.

•Givespeciallyfavorabletreatmentincommerceortaxationtotheseaportsofanystateortothevesselsusingthem.

•Authorizeanytitlesofnobility.

OfficersoftheCongress

TheConstitutionprovidesthatthevicepresidentshallbepresidentoftheSenate.Thevicepresidenthasnovote,exceptinthecaseofatie.TheSenatechoosesapresidentprotemporetopresidewhenthevicepresidentisabsent.TheHouseofRepresentativeschoosesitsownpresidingofficer—theSpeakeroftheHouse.Thespeakerandthepresidentprotemporearealwaysmembersofthepoliticalpartywiththelargestrepresentationineachhouse.

AtthebeginningofeachnewCongress,membersofthepoliticalpartiesselectfloorleadersandotherofficialstomanagetheflowofproposedlegislation.Theseofficials,alongwiththepresidingofficersandcommitteechairpersons,stronglyinfluencethemakingoflaws.

TheCommitteeProcess

OneofthemajorcharacteristicsoftheCongressisthedominantrolecommitteesplayinitsproceedings.Committeeshaveassumedtheirpresent-dayimportancebyevolution,notbyconstitutionaldesign,sincetheConstitutionmakesnoprovisionfortheirestablishment.

In2013theSenatehad15standing（orpermanent）committeesand70subcommittees;theHouseofRepresentativeshad21committeesand104subcommittees.Eachspecializesinspecificareasoflegislation:

foreignaffairs,defense,banking,agriculture,comm