Wittgenstein LudwigLectures On Philosophy.docx
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WittgensteinLudwigLecturesOnPhilosophy
LudwigWittgenstein(1932-33)
LecturesonPhilosophy
Source:
Wittgenstein'sLectures,1932-35,EditedbyAliceAmbrose,publ.Blackwell,1979.The1932-33Lecturenotes,pp2-40reproducedhere.
[DuetothelimitationsofHTML,Ihaveusedthefollowingcharacterstorepresentsymbolsofmathematicallogic:
»for"isasupersetof",«for"isasubsetof",~for"not",Œfor"thereis",vfor"or",.for"and"]
1Iamgoingtoexcludefromourdiscussionquestionswhichareansweredbyexperience.Philosophicalproblemsarenotsolvedbyexperience,forwhatwetalkaboutinphilosophyarenotfactsbutthingsforwhichfactsareuseful.Philosophicaltroublearisesthroughseeingasystemofrulesandseeingthatthingsdonotfitit.Itislikeadvancingandretreatingfromatreestumpandseeingdifferentthings.Wegonearer,remembertherules,andfeelsatisfied,thenretreatandfeeldissatisfied.
2Wordsandchesspiecesareanalogous;knowinghowtouseawordislikeknowinghowtomoveachesspiece.Nowhowdotherulesenterintoplayingthegame?
Whatisthedifferencebetweenplayingthegameandaimlesslymovingthepieces?
Idonotdenythereisadifference,butIwanttosaythatknowinghowapieceistobeusedisnotaparticularstateofmindwhichgoesonwhilethegamegoeson.Themeaningofawordistobedefinedbytherulesforitsuse,notbythefeelingthatattachestothewords.
"Howisthewordused?
"and"Whatisthegrammaroftheword?
"Ishalltakeasbeingthesamequestion.
Thephrase,"beareroftheword",standingforwhatonepointstoingivinganostensivedefinition,and"meaningoftheword"haveentirelydifferentgrammars;thetwoarenotsynonymous.Toexplainawordsuchas"red"bypointingtosomethinggivesbutoneruleforitsuse,andincaseswhereonecannotpoint,rulesofadifferentsortaregiven.Alltherulestogethergivethemeaning,andthesearenotfixedbygivinganostensivedefinition.Therulesofgrammarareentirelyindependentofoneanother.Twowordshavethesamemeaningiftheyhavethesamerulesfortheiruse.
Aretherules,forexample,~~p=pfornegation,responsibletothemeaningofaword?
No.Therulesconstitutethemeaning,andarenotresponsibletoit.Themeaningchangeswhenoneofitsruleschanges.If,forexample,thegameofchessisdefinedintermsofitsrules,onecannotsaythegamechangesifaruleformovingapiecewerechanged.Onlywhenwearespeakingofthehistoryofthegamecanwetalkofchange.Rulesarearbitraryinthesensethattheyarenotresponsibletosomesortofreality-theyarenotsimilartonaturallaws;noraretheyresponsibletosomemeaningthewordalreadyhas.Ifsomeonesaystherulesofnegationarenotarbitrarybecausenegationcouldnotbesuchthat~~p=~p,allthatcouldbemeantisthatthelatterrulewouldnotcorrespondtotheEnglishword"negation".Theobjectionthattherulesarenotarbitrarycomesfromthefeelingthattheyareresponsibletothemeaning.Buthowisthemeaningof"negation"defined,ifnotbytherules?
~~p=pdoesnotfollowfromthemeaningof"not"butconstitutesit.Similarly,p.p»q.».qdoesnotdependonthemeaningsof"and"and"implies";itconstitutestheirmeaning.Ifitissaidthattherulesofnegationarenotarbitraryinasmuchastheymustnotcontradicteachother,thereplyisthatiftherewereacontradictionamongthemweshouldsimplynolongercallcertainofthemrules."Itispartofthegrammaroftheword'rule'thatif'p'isarule,'p.~p'isnotarule."
3Logicproceedsfrompremisesjustasphysicsdoes.Buttheprimitivepropositionsofphysicsareresultsofverygeneralexperience,whilethoseoflogicarenot.Todistinguishbetweenthepropositionsofphysicsandthoseoflogic,moremustbedonethantoproducepredicatessuchasexperientialandself-evident.Itmustbeshownthatagrammaticalruleholdsforoneandnotfortheother.
4Inwhatsensearelawsofinferencelawsofthought?
Canareasonbegivenforthinkingaswedo?
Willthisrequireanansweroutsidethegameofreasoning?
Therearetwosensesof"reason":
reasonfor,andcause.Thesearetwodifferentordersofthings.Oneneedstodecideonacriterionforsomething'sbeingareasonbeforereasonandcausecanbedistinguished.Reasoningisthecalculationactuallydone,andareasongoesbackonestepinthecalculus.Areasonisareasononlyinsidethegame.Togiveareasonistogothroughaprocessofcalculation,andtoaskforareasonistoaskhowonearrivedattheresult.Thechainofreasonscomestoanend,thatis,onecannotalwaysgiveareasonforareason.Butthisdoesnotmakethereasoninglessvalid.Theanswertothequestion,Whyareyoufrightened?
involvesahypothesisifacauseisgiven.Butthereisnohypotheticalelementinacalculation.
Todoathingforacertainreasonmaymeanseveralthings.Whenapersongivesashisreasonforenteringaroomthatthereisalecture,howdoesoneknowthatishisreason?
Thereasonmaybenothingmorethanjusttheonehegiveswhenasked.Again,areasonmaybethewayonearrivesataconclusion,e.g.,whenonemultiplies13x25.Itisacalculation,andisthejustificationfortheresult325.Thereasonforfixingadatemightconsistinaman'sgoingthroughagameofcheckinghisdiaryandfindingafreetime.Thereasonheremightbesaidtobeincludedintheactheperforms.Acausecouldnotbeincludedinthissense.
Wearetalkinghereofthegrammarofthewords"reason"and"cause":
inwhatcasesdowesaywehavegivenareasonfordoingacertainthing,andinwhatcases,acause?
Ifoneanswersthequestion"Whydidyoumoveyourarm?
"bygivingabehaviouristicexplanation,onehasspecifiedacause.Causesmaybediscoveredbyexperiments,butexperimentsdonotproducereasons.Theword"reason"isnotusedinconnectionwithexperimentation.Itissenselesstosayareasonisfoundbyexperiment.Thealternative,"mathematicalargumentorexperientialevidence?
"correspondsto"reasonorcause?
"
5Wheretheclassdefinedbyfcanbegivenbyanenumeration,i.e.,byalist,(x)fxissimplyalogicalproductand(Œx)fxalogicalsum.E.g.,(x)fx.=.fa.fb.fc,and(Œx)fx.=.favfbvfc.Examplesaretheclassofprimarycoloursandtheclassoftonesoftheoctave.Insuchcasesitisnotnecessarytoadd"anda,b,c,...aretheonlyf's"Thestatement,"InthispictureIseealltheprimarycolours",means"Iseeredandgreenandblue...",andtoadd"andthesearealltheprimarycolours"saysneithermorenorlessthan"Iseeall...";whereastoaddto"a,b,carepeopleintheroom"thata,b,careallthepeopleintheroomsaysmorethan"(x)xisapersonintheroom",andtoomititistosayless.Ifitiscorrecttosaythegeneralpropositionisashorthandforalogicalproductorsum,asitisinsomecases,thentheclassofthingsnamedintheproductorsumisdefinedinthegrammar,notbyproperties.Forexample,beingatoneoftheoctaveisnotaqualityofanote.Thetonesofanoctavearealist.Weretheworldcomposedof"individuals"whichweregiventhenames"a","b","c",etc.,then,asinthecaseofthetones,therewouldbenoproposition"andthesearealltheindividuals".
Whereageneralpropositionisashorthandforaproduct,deductionofthespecialpropositionfafrom(x)fxisstraightforward.Butwhereitisnot,howdoesfafollow?
"Following"isofaspecialsort,justasthelogicalproductisofaspecialsort.Andalthough(Œx)fx.fa.=.faisanalogoustopvq.p.=.p,fa"follows"inadifferentwayinthetwocaseswhere(Œx)fxisashorthandforalogicalsumandwhereitisnot.Wehaveadifferentcalculuswhere(Œx)fxisnotalogicalsumfaisnotdeducedaspisdeducedinthecalculusofT'sandF'sfrompvq.p.Ioncemadeacalculusinwhichfollowingwasthesameinallcases.Butthiswasamistake.
Notethatthedotsinthedisjunctionsvfbvfcv...havedifferentgrammars:
(1)"andsoon"indicateslazinesswhenthedisjunctionisashorthandforalogicalsum,theclassinvolvedbeinggivenbyanenumeration,
(2)"andsoon"isanentirelydifferentsignwithnewruleswhenitdoesnotcorrespondtoanyenumeration,e.g.,"2isevenv4isevenv6iseven...",(3)"andsoon"referstopositionsinvisualspace,ascontrastedwithpositionscorrelatedwiththenumbersofthemathematicalcontinuum.Asanexampleof(3)consider"Thereisacircleinthesquare".Hereitmightappearthatwehavealogicalsumwhosetermscouldbedeterminedbyobservation,thatthereisanumberofpositionsacirclecouldoccupyinvisualspace,andthattheirnumbercouldbedeterminedbyanexperiment,say,bycoordinatingthemwithturnsofamicrometer.Butthereisnonumberofpositionsinvisualspace,anymorethanthereisanumberofdropsofrainwhichyousee.Theproperanswertothequestion,"Howmanydropsdidyousee?
",ismany,notthattherewasanumberbutyoudon'tknowhowmany.Althoughtherearetwentycirclesinthesquare,andthemicrometerwouldgivethenumberofpositionscoordinatedwiththem,visuallyyoumaynotseetwenty.
6Ihavepointedouttwokindsofcases(I)thoselike"Inthismelodythecomposerusedallthenotesoftheoctave",allthenotesbeingenumerable,
(2)thoselike"Allcirclesinthesquarehavecrosses".Russell'snotationassumesthatforeverygeneralpropositiontherearenameswhichcanbegiveninanswertothequestion"Whichones?
"(incontrastto,"Whatsort?
").Consider(Œx)fx,thenotationfor"Therearemenontheisland"andfor"Thereisacircleinthesquare".
Nowinthecaseofhumanbeings,whereweusenames,thequestion"Which