AP Biology Summer AssignmentWord格式文档下载.docx

AP Biology Summer AssignmentWord格式文档下载.docx

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2.Populationecologyfocus:

factorsthataffecthowmanyindividualsofaparticularspeciesliveinanarea.

Whatenvironmentalfactorsaffectthereproductiverateofdeermice?

3.Communityecologyfocus:

howinteractionssuchaspredation,competition,anddisease,aswellasabioticfactorssuchasdisturbance,affectcommunitystructureandorganization.

Whatfactorsinfluencethediversityofspeciesthatmakeupaparticularforest?

4.Ecosystemecologyfocus:

energyflowandchemicalcyclingamongthevariousbioticandabioticcomponents.

Whatfactorscontrolphotosyntheticproductivityinatemperategrasslandecosystem?

5.Landscapeecologyfocus:

factorscontrollingexchangesofenergy,materials,andorganismsamongtheecosystempatchesmakingupalandscapeorseascape.

Towhatextentdothetreesliningthedrainagechannelsinthislandcapeserveascorridorsofdispersalforforestanimals?

2.GiveanexampleofapurposefullyintroducedspeciesandanaccidentallyintroducedspeciesthathavebecomepestsinNorthAmerica:

Accidentallyintroducedspecie:

Thefingernail-sizedzebramussel（Dreissenapolymorpha）.

Ithasextensivelydisruptedfreshwaterecosystems,threateningnativeaquaticspeciesandhasalsocloggedwaterintakestructures,disruptingdomesticandindividualwatersuppliesandcausingbillionsofdollarsindamages.

Purposefullyintroducedspecie:

TheEuropeanstarling.

ItwasboughtintentionallyintoNewYorkandquicklyspreadacrossNorthAmerica,increasingtoapopulationofmorethan100millionanddisplacingmanynativesongbirds.

3.Mountainsaffectlocalclimate.Describetheirinfluenceinthefollowingthereareas:

a.Solarradiation:

South-facingslopesintheNorthernHemispherereceivemoresunlightthannearbynorth-facingslopesandarethereforewarmeranddrier.

b.Temperature:

Atanyparticularlatitude,airtemperaturedeclinesapproximately6°

Cwithevery1,000-mincreaseinelevation,parallelingthedeclineoftemperaturewithincreasinglatitude.

c.Rainfall:

Whenwarm,moistairapproachesamountain,theairrisesandcools,releasingmoistureonthewindwardsideofthepeal.ONtheleewardsideofthemountain,cooler,dryairdescends,absorbingmoistureandproducinga“rainshadow.”

4.Indicatewitha+or–whetherthefollowingarerelativelyhighorlowinoxygenlevel,nutrientcontentandproductivity.

Biome

Oxygenlevel

Nutrientcontent

Productivity

Oligotrophiclake

+

–

Eutrophiclake

Headwaterofstream

Turbidriver

Estuary

5.Defineecology:

Thescientificstudyoftheinteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironmentiscalledecology.Ecologyrevealstherichnessofthebiosphere.Unlikethetermenvironmentalism,ecologyprovidestheunderstandingoftheoftencomplicatedanddelicaterelationshipsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironment,whichareusedtoaddresstheenvironmentalproblems.

6.Whatmethodsareusedtoanswerecologicalquestions?

Ecologistsgointotheecosystemstoobserve,butalsouseremotesensorsonaircraftandsatellitestocollectdataandanalyzegeographicdatainlargedatabases.Forexample,GeographicInformationSystems（GIS）,remotesensing.GISorganizes,stores,andanalyzescomplexdatacollectedoverbroadgeographicareas.Ecologistsdevelopmathematicalandothermodelstosimulatethebehaviorofecosystems,andalsousecontrolledindoorandoutdoorchamberstostudyecosystems.

7.Whatarebiomes?

Anyoftheworld'

smajorecosystems,classifiedaccordingtothepredominantvegetationandcharacterizedbyadaptationsoforganismstothatparticularenvironment.

8.Whataccountsforthesimilaritiesinlifeformsfoundinthesametypeofbiomeingeographicallyseparatedareas?

Annualmeansfortemperatureandrainfallmaybeusedtoaccountforthat.Butitdoesn’tconfirmthatthesevariablesgovernthebiomes’location.Onlyadetailedanalysisofthewaterandtemperaturetolerancesofindividualspeciescouldestablishthecontrollingeffectsofthesevariables.

9.Manyanimalsbreedinthespringandearlysummer.Whatisaprobableproximatecauseofthisbehavior?

Probableultimatecause?

Proximatequestionsaboutbehaviorfocusontheenvironmentalstimuliwhileultimatequestionsaddresstheevolutionarysignificanceofabehavior.

Proximatecauseofthisbehaviormaybethatbreedingistriggeredbytheeffectofincreaseddaylengthonananimal’sproductionofandresponsestoparticularhormones.Indeed,experimentswithvariousanimalsdemonstratethatlengtheningdailyexposuretolightproducesneuralandhormonalchangesthatinducebehaviorassociatedwithreproduction.

Ultimatecauseofthisbehaviormaybethatthebehaviorincreasesfitnessinsomeparticularway.Areasonablehypothesisisthatbreedingismostproductiveatthattimeofyearwhichprovidesanadvantageinreproductivesuccesscomparedtoanimalsthatbreedinotherseasons.

10.Whatisthesignstimulusforattackbehaviorinmalesticklebackfish?

Thecolorredisakeycomponentofthesignstimulusreleasingaggressioninmalesticklebacks.

11.GiveanexampleofaFAPinahumaninfantandthesignstimulusthatelicitsit.

Humaninfantsgraspstronglywiththeirhandasaresponsetotactilestimulus.

12.ExplainhowZack’sstudyofwhelk-eatingcrowsupportstheoptimalforagingtheory.

Theoptimalforagingtheorymeanstofindthecompromisebetweenthebenefitsofnutritionandthecostsofobtainingfoodandtrytominimizesthecostsofforagingandmaximizesthebenefits.Zack’sstudyshowsthatadropheightofabout5misoptimal,breakingtheshellswiththelowesttotalflightheight-inotherword,withtheleastwork.Andthestudyalsoshowedthattheactualaverageflightheightforcrowsintheirwhelk-eatingbehaviorwas5,23m,whichisquietsimilartothelowesttotalflightheight,whichmeansthatthecrowstaketheoptimalflightheighttominimizetheirenergyandthengainrelativelyhighbenefitsofnutrition,andthisbehaviorsupportstheoptimalforagingtheory.

13.Indicatethetypeoflearningillustratedbythefollowingexamples:

a.Eweswilladoptandnursealambshortlyaftertheyfivebirthtotheirownlambbutwillbuttandrejectalambintroducedadayortwolater.

Associativelearning

b.Adog,whoseearly“accidents”werecleanedupwithpapertowelsaccompaniedwithharshdiscipline,hidesunderthebedanytimeapapertowelisusedinthehouse.

Associativelearning

c.Ducklingseventuallyignoreacardboardsilhouetteofahawkthatisrepeatedlyflownoverthem.

Habituation

d.Kittensstalkandpounceoneachother,bitingandkickingastheyrollaroundtogether.

e.InPavlov’sexperiments,theringingofabellcausedadogtosalivate.

14.Sowbugsareplacedinexperimentalchambersthatareeitherhumidordryandhavebothlightanddarkareas.Inthehumidchamber,thesowbugsmoveintothedarkareaandstopmoving.Inthedrychamber,theymoveintothedarkareaandcontinuetomoveaboutinthatarea.Explaintheseexperimentalresults.

Sowbugsinhumidchamberstendtostayinthemoistareaoncetheyencounterit.Sowbugsindrychambersincreasedtheirmovementinordertoincreasethechancetheyleavethedryareaandgetintoamoistarea.

15.Whyaremanyinteractionsbetweenmembersofthesamespeciesagonistic?

Theseagonisticbehaviorsareoftenritualizedconteststhatdeterminewhichcompetitorgainsaccesstoaresource,suchasfoodormates.Theoutcomeofsuchcontestsmaybedeterminedbystrength,size,ortheformofhorn,teeth,andsoforth,butthevictoriesmaybepsychologicalratherthanphysical.

16.Whatmechanismsreduceviolentencountersbetweenmembersofthesamesocialgroup?

Membersofthesamesocialgroupmayadoptabehavioralstrategytheycalledtitfortat.Inthetit-for-tatstrategy,anindividualtreatsanotherinthesamewayitwastreatedthelasttimetheymet.Individualsadoptingthisbehaviorarealwaysaltruistic,orcooperative,onthefirstencounterwithanotherindividualandwillremainsoaslongastheiraltruismisreciprocated.（Reciprocalaltruism）

17.Explainthebasisforthedistinctionbetweenmalecompetitionandfemalechoiceincourtshipbehavior.

Malecompetitionsareoftenritualizedthatdeterminedwhichonecangaintheaccesstoaresourcesuchasfoodormatesandthesebehaviorsareratherpsychologicalthanphysical.Femalechoiceincourtshipbehaviorcorrelatewiththemale’shealthandvitality.Afemalethatchoosesahealthymaleincreasestheprobabilityofproducinghealthyoffspring.

18.Naturalselectionhasresultedinexclusivemaleandparentalcarebeingmuchmorefrequentinspecieswithexternalfertilization,wherethemale’sgeneticcontributiontotheoffspringismorecertain.Explainhowsuchbehaviorcouldevolve.

Thecertaintyofpaternityisrelativelylowinmostspecieswithinternalfertilizationbecausetheactsofmatingandbirth（ormatingandegglaying）areseparatedovertime.Certaintyofpaternityismuchhigherwhenegglayingandmatingoccurtogether,asinexternalfertilization.Thus,thecertaintyofpaternityisimportanttotheexclusivemaleandparentalcare.Notonlyinthecasewhichexternalfertilizationi