文献综述的例子 英语专业学期论文文档格式.docx
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Introduction:
Readingisregardedastheoneofthefourbasicskillslinlanguagelearningbecausepeoplegetinformationthroughreadingaswellaslisteningratherthanspeakingandwriting.Barnes&
Powellthinkthat“Readingholdsthekeytoadvancedlanguagelearning.”(1996,p.13)Krashen’sinputhypothesis(1982)alsoprovidedthetheoreticalsupportreadinginsecondorforeignlanguageacquisitionwhicharguesforthelearnersacquirealanguagebyenoughandhigh-qualitycomprehensibleinput.Thedevelopmentoftechnologylikefaxes,computersmakesreadingmoreimportantindailylifeandlanguagelearningoracquisition.However,thewidespreadofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingnowadaysavertmoreofeducator’sattentionfromreadingtospeakingallovertheworld,particularlyinAsiancountrieslikeChinawhereasreadingcomprehensionisthemostimportantandnecessarypartinallEnglishexams.ThismakesreadinginstructioninadilemmaandunpopularinmostChineseuniversitiesbecauseregularclassesgenerallytendtoemphasizereadingthecoursebookassignedratherthanextensivereading.Andstudentsaretaughtinawaythatfocusondirectteachingofreadingcomprehensionandintensivereadingofshort,difficulttextscomingformassignedcoursebook,whichcausesaheavyburdenofdictionaryworkload.BothofthetwoformsofreadingarenecessaryinreadinginstructionandIwillreviewrelevantliteratureconcerningthetwoformsindifferentareas,butmuchofthefocuswillbeonextensivereadingduetoitssignificanceandweakimplementationinChina.
Readingcomprehensionforatext
Whilethereaderwasoncebelievedtobeapassivereceiverofinformation,heorsheisnowconsideredanactiveparticipantinareadingactivity.Sadeghi(2007)arguesthatareaderisanactiveparticipantinthereader-writerinteractionwhointeractswiththetext,thecontextandthewriterbyusinghisorherlinguisticschema,particularlycontentschema,formalschema.Singhal(1998,p.2)furtherdistinguishesbetweenthreetypesofschema:
contentschema,referringtoone’sbackgroundorworldknowledge;
formalschema,alsoknownastextualschema,referringtoone’sknowledgeaboutatext’sorganizationalandrhetoricalstructure;
andlanguageorlinguisticschema,referringtoone’sknowledgeoflexicon,syntax,andsemantics.Theyallplaydifferentbutimportantroleintheinterpretationofareadingtext.Importanttextcharacteristicssuchastexttype,topic,genre,lexicaldensity,syntacticcomplexity,semanticabstractness,complexityofstructuresentencelengthalsoaffecttextcomprehensibility(Pearson&
Camperell,1981,p.33).Fortheroleofvocabularyinreading,thereisafigurethatlearnersneedtohaveminimumamountofvocabulary,about3000wordfamiliesor5000lexicalitemsinordertoreadeffectively(Laufer,1997,p.25).Buttheydidn’trelatethetextlengthtoreadingcomprehension.AndMehrpourandRiazi(2004)foundthelengthofthetextdidnothaveanystatisticallysignificanteffectonthestudents'
performanceonthetest.However,empirically,studentstendtofeelanxious,impatientorfrustratedwhenfacingalongtextthanashorttextifatthesamelevelofdifficultyandifthetextisalittlebitdifficult.Thistellsuswhentestingastudent,teachersortestpaperproducersdonotneedtoconsidertoomuchaboutthetext’slength,butdifficultandlongtextssurelydemotivateandfrustratethestudent.Thisisalsotruetoclassroomreadinginstruction.AndtheimplicationofschematatheoryinreadinginstructionisthatwhileL2readersbringtheirL1contentandformalschematoL2situations,teachersneedhelpthemdevelopL2languageschemafromthebeginning.InChineseuniversities,teacherstendtoemphasizedevelopingstudents’linguisticschemabyteachingvocabularyandgrammarratherthanformalandcontentschema,particularlythelatter.Therefore,thereisamustthatinstructorsneedtocoverformalandcontentschemaknowledgeinreadinginstruction.
Forreadingstrategies,Schoonernetal(1998,citedinGuan,2004,p.23)findthataneffectivereadercaneffectivelyuseandmakeconstantshiftsbetweentop-downandbottom-upapproacheswiththemeta-cognitiveknowledge.Meta-cognitiveknowledge,referringtoareader’sabilitytoadjusthisorherstrategiestocompleteatask(Baker&
Brown,1984),isveryusefulforeffectivereadinginthatitenablesthereadertocompensatehisorherdeficienciesinlinguisticschema.Thetop-downapproachbasicallyemphasizesonthereader’scontentschemaknowledgeinthatitemphasizesonhisorherinterpretationandpriorknowledge.Itdemandsthereadertoactivatehisorherschematoarriveatthetextmeaning.However,thebottom-upapproachinvolvesthereadertoarriveatthetextmeaningbydecodingthetextthroughtheknowledgeoflinguisticschemaandtextschema.Duetothelackoftheircontentschemaandinsufficientreadingamount,ChineselearnersofEnglishtendtousebottom-upapproachduringreadingprocess.Thisonceagaincallsforthenecessityoftheircontentschemainputbysufficientreadingandteachers’instruction.Besides,strategyinstructionisalsoimportantinreadingcomprehensiondomain(Nuttall,1996;
Danielle,2008)especiallyforthosewhohavelesscontentschemaknowledgeForexample,teachersaresuggestedtousementalmodellingtomakestheirreadingprocessvisibleandeasyforthestudentstoimitatetheirreadingprocedures,thusfurthertohelptodevelopstudents’readingstrategiesbyimprovingtheirreasoningbyimitatingtheteacher’sprocessofreasoning(Pani,2004,p.361).Studentscanbeputingroupstotaketurnsself-explainingapartofthetextbookusingthestrategiesofparaphrasing,elaboration,predictionandbridginginference(Danielle,2008,p.35).
Extensivereading
RichardsandSchmidt(2002,pp.193-194)defineextensivereadingas“…readinginquantityandinordertogainageneralunderstandingofwhatisread.”Itattemptstobuildupknowledgeofvocabularyandstructure,arouseinterestinreadinganddevelopgoodreadinghabits.Krashen’sinputhypothesis(1982)alsoemphasizedthevalueofextensivereadinginreadinginstructionbecauseofitssufficientcomprehensibleinputandhisreadinghypothesis(1993)pointsoutthepositiveeffectofextensivereadingonotherskillslikespeaking,listeningandwritingandotherabilitieslikereadingcomprehensionandspeed,vocabulary,grammarandspelling.Thisreadinghypothesishasbeensupportedbymanyresearches(Mason&
Krashen,1997;
Bell,2001;
Macalister,2008)andMengalsosupplementsthehypothesiswiththecultivationofinterestandmotivation,positiveattitudeandlearninghabitstowardsreadingandgenerallanguagelearning.However,Yamashita(2008,p.668)arguesthatextensivereadinghaslittleeffectonlinguisticabilitybysurveyingagroupofstudents.Nomattertowhatextentoneagreeswiththetwohypothesis,itisundeniablethatextensivereadinghasaverypositiveroleinsecondorforeignlanguagelearningthusshouldbeintegratedinschoolcurriculum.Ashowtoemployextensivereadinginreadinginstruction,DayandBamford(2002,p.137-140)introducetenguidelinesforextensivereadingteachingandlearningfromperspectivesofreadingmaterials,teachers,studentsandreadingitself.Readingmaterialsshouldbeeasyandenjoyableandconcerningavarietyoftopics;
teachersneedtoorientandguidetheirstudentsandalsoactasarolemodelofareader;
studentscanchoosewhattheywanttoreadandtheyshouldreadasmuchaspossible;
thepurposeofreadingisforpleasure,informationgainingandgeneralunderstandingandreadingisindividualandsilent.Meanwhilereadingspeedshouldbefaster.Bell(1998)suggeststhatextensivereadingshould“avoidtheuseoftests”.ButinChina,studentsareusetothewaythattheylearnfortheexam,andifteachersdon’ttestthem,theyareprobablynottoread.Ofcourse,otherformslikekeepingajournalofreadingmaterials,cardfilesystemorthereaderinterviewmightbebetterchoicesbutkindofdifficulttoemployinalargeclasstomonitoreverybody’sreading.Therefore,testingcanbeoccasionallyusedinmyteachingcontexttoensurethateverybodyinvolvesinreading,butitshouldnotbeusedtoomuchincaseofthecauseofreaders’demotivationandfrustration.
Inaddition,SustainedSilentReading(SSR)wasregardedasaneffectivewaynomatterforintensivereadingorextensivereading.ButsuccessofSSRcallsforaquiet,relaxingandnon-evaluativeclassroomenvironmentandteachersneedtoprovidearolemodelofsilentreading(Chow&
Chou,2000citedinYang,p.118).AlthoughBell(1998)andWallace(1992,pp.54-56)advocatereadaloud(RA)inlanguagelearningaswellasreadinginstruction,butthisisbasedonthereasonthatRAcanmotivateandencouragethestudentstoinvolveinclassroomreadingandimprovepronunciationofindividualwords,butWallace(1992,p.56)andGabrielatos(2002,p.2)admitthatRAcanbedetrimentaltothedevelopmentofreadingskillsintermsofreadingcomprehensionandreadingspeed.Therefore,wecanchoosetouseSSRorRAinreadingaccordingtodifferentpurposes.Butforhigher-levelofreadinglikemyuniversitystudents’,SSRmightbeabetterchoicewhileforyoungchildrenwithalowlevelEnglish,RAcanbeusedtogetherwithSSR.Ozburn(1995)arguesthatthebenefitsofextensivereadingcannotbeobserveduntiltheminimumoffourmonthshaspassed.Therefore,educatorsshouldnotgiveupextensivereadingifstudentsdonotgetinstantpositiveresultwhenintegratingextensivereadinginEFLinstruction,butifthe