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Netscape,NETSCAPEandnEtscapearethreedifferentcommands.Alsomy_filE,my_file,andmy_FILEarethreedifferentfiles.Youruserloginnameandpasswordarealsocasesensitive.（ThisgoeswiththetraditionofUNIXandthe"
c"
programminglanguagebeingcasesensitive.）
2.Filenamescanbeupto256characterslongandcancontainletters,numbers,"
."
（dot）,"
_"
（underscore）,"
-"
（dash）,plussomeothernotrecommendedcharacters.
3.Fileswithnamesstartingwith"
arenormallynotshownbythels（list）ordircommands.Thinkofthesefilesas"
hidden"
.Usels-a
（listwiththeoption"
all"
）toseethesefiles.
4."
/"
isanequivalenttoDOS"
\"
（rootdirectory,meaningtheparentofallotherdirectories）.
5.UnderLinux,alldirectoriesappearunderasingledirectorytree（therearenoDOS-styledriveletters）.
6.Inaconfigurationfile,alinestartingwith#isacomment.
7.1Linuxessentialshortcutsandsanitycommands
Alt>
F1>
Switchtothefirsttextterminal.UnderLinuxyoucanhaveseveral（6instandardsetup）terminalsopenedatthesametime.
Fn>
（n=1..6）
Switchtothenthtextterminal.
tty
Printthenameoftheterminalinwhichyouaretypingthiscommand.
F7>
SwitchtothefirstGUIterminal（ifX-windowsisrunningonthisterminal）.
（n=7..12）
SwitchtothenthGUIterminal（ifaGUIterminalisrunningonscreenn-1）.Ondefault,nothingisrunningonterminals
8to12,butyoucanrunanotherserverthere.
（Inatextterminal）Autocompletethecommand
ifthereisonlyoneoption,orelseshowalltheavailableoptions.
THISSHORTCUTISGREAT!
ItevenworksatLILOprompt!
ArrowUp>
Scrollandeditthecommandhistory.Press<
Enter>
toexecute.
Shift>
PgUp>
Scrollterminaloutputup.Workalsoattheloginprompt,soyoucanscrollthroughyourbootupmessages.
PgDown>
Scrollterminaloutputdown.
+>
（inX-windows）ChangetothenextX-serverresolution（ifyousetuptheX-servertomorethanoneresolution）.FormultipleresolutionsonmystandardSVGAcard/monitor,Ihavethefollowinglineinthefile/etc/X11/XF86Config（thefirstresolutionstartsondefault,thelargestdeterminesthesizeofthe"
virtualscreen"
）:
Modes"
1024x768"
"
800x600"
640x480"
512x384"
480x300"
400x300"
1152x864"
->
（inX-windows）ChangetothepreviousX-serverresolution.
BkSpc>
（inX-windows）KillthecurrentX-windowsserver.UseiftheX-windowsservercrushesandcannotbeexitednormally.
Del>
Shutdownthesystemandreboot.Thisisthenormalshutdowncommandforauseratthetext-modeconsole.Don'
tjustpressthe"
reset"
buttonforshutdown!
c
Killthecurrentprocess（mostlyinthetextmodeforsmallapplications）.
d
Logoutfromthecurrentterminal.
Seealsothenextcommand.
Send[End-of-File]tothecurrentprocess.Don'
tpressittwiceelseyoualsologout（seethepreviouscommand）.
s
Stopthetransfertotheterminal.
q
Resumethetransfertotheterminal.Tryifyourterminalmysteriouslystopsresponding.
z
Sendthecurrentprocesstothebackground.
exit
Logout.Icanalsouselogoutforthesameeffect.
（Ifyouhavestartedasecondshell,e.g.,usingbashthesecondshellwillbeexitedandyouwillbebackinthefirstshell,notloggedout.）
reset
Restoreascrewed-upterminal（aterminalshowingfunnycharacters）todefaultsetting.Useifyoutriedto"
cat"
abinaryfile.Youmaynotbeabletoseethecommandasyoutypeit.
MiddleMouseButton>
Pastethetextwhichiscurrentlyhighlightedsomewhereelse.Thisisthenormal"
copy-paste"
operationinLinux.
（Itdoesn'
tworkwithNetscapeandWordPerfectwhichusetheMSWindows-style"
.Itdoesworkinthetextterminalifyouenabled"
gpm"
serviceusing"
setup"
.）BestusedwithaLinux-ready3-buttonmouse（Logitechorsimilar）orelseset"
3-mousebuttonemulation"
）.
~
（tilde）Myhomedirectory（normallythedirectory/home/my_login_name）.Forexample,thecommandcd~/my_dirwillchangemyworking
directorytothesubdirectory"
my_dir"
undermyhomedirectory.
Typingjust"
cd"
aloneisanequivalentofthecommand"
cd~"
.
（dot）Currentdirectory.Forexample,./my_programwillattempttoexecutethefile"
my_program"
locatedinyourcurrentworkingdirectory.
..
（twodots）Directoryparenttothecurrentone.Forexample,thecommandcd..willchangemycurrentworkingdirectoryoneonelevelup.
7.2CommonLinuxcommands--systeminfo
pwd
Printworkingdirectory,i.e.,displaythenameofmycurrentdirectoryonthescreen.
hostname
Printthenameofthelocalhost（themachineonwhichyouareworking）.Usenetconf（asroot）tochangethenameofthemachine.
whoami
Printmyloginname.
idusername
Printuserid（uid）andhis/hergroupid（gid）,effectiveid（ifdifferentthantherealid）andthesupplementarygroups.
date
Printorchangetheoperatingsystemdateandtime.E.g.,Icouldchangethedateandtimeto2000-12-3123:
57usingthiscommand:
date123123572000
Tosetthehardware（BIOS）clockfromthesystem（Linux）clock,usethecommand（asroot）setclock
time
Determinetheamountoftimethatittakesforaprocesstocomplete+otherinfo.Don'
tconfuseitwiththedatecommand.E.g.Icanfindouthowlongittakestodisplayadirectorycontentusing:
timels
who
Determinetheusersloggedonthemachine.
rwho-a
（=remotewho）Determineallusersloggedonyournetwork.Therwhoservicemustbeenabledforthiscommandtorun.Ifitisn'
t,runsetupasroottoenable"
rwho"
fingeruser_name
Systeminfoaboutauser.Try:
fingerroot
last
Showlistingofuserslastlogged-inonyoursystem.
history|more
Showthelast（1000orso）commandsexecutedfromthecommandlineonthecurrentaccount.The"
|more"
causesthedisplaytostopaftereachscreenful.
uptime
Showtheamountoftimesincethelastreboot.
ps
（=printstatus）Listtheprocessescurrentlyrunbythecurrentuser.
psaxu|more
Listalltheprocessescurrentlyrunning,eventhosewithoutthecontrollingterminal,togetherwiththenameoftheuserthatownseachprocess.
top
Keeplistingthecurrentlyrunningprocesses,sortedbycpuusage（topusersfirst）.InKDE,youcangetGUI-basedKtopfrom"
K"
menuunder"
System"
TaskManager"
（orbyexecuting"
ktop"
inanX-terminal）.
uname-a
（=Unixnamewithoption"
）Infoonyour（local）server.Icanalsouseguname（inX-windowterminal）todisplaytheinfomorenicely.
free
Memoryinfo（inkilobytes）.
df-h
（=diskfree）Printdiskinfoaboutallthefilesystems（inhuman-readableform）
du/-bh|more
（=diskusage）Printdetaileddiskusageforeachsubdirectorystartingatthe"
（root）directory（inhumanlegibleform）.
cat/proc/cpuinfo
Cpuinfo--itshowthecontentofthefilecpuinfo.Notethatthefilesinthe/procdirectoryarenotrealfiles--theyarehookstolookatinformationavailabletothekernel.
cat/proc/interrupts
Listtheinterruptsinuse.
cat/proc/version
Linuxversionandotherinfo
cat/proc/filesystems
Showthetypesoffilesystemscurrentlyinuse.
cat/etc/printcap
Showthesetupofprinters.
lsmod
（Asroot.Use/sbin/lsmodtoexecutethiscommandwhenyouareanon-rootuser.）Showthekernelmodulescurrentlyloaded.
set|more
Showthecurrentuserenvironment.
echo$PATH
Showthecontentoftheenvironmentvariable"
PATH"
.Thiscommandcanbeusedtoshowotherenvironmentvariablesaswell.Use"
set"
toseethefullenvironment.
dmesg|less
Printkernelmessages（thecontentoftheso-calledkernelringbuffer）.Press"
q"
toquit"
less"
.Useless/var/log/dmesg
toseewhat"
dmesg"
dumpedintothisfilerightafterthelastsystembootup.
7.3Basicoperations
any_command--help|more
Displayabriefhelponacommand（workswithmostcommands）."
--help"
workssimilartoDOS"
/h"
switch.The"
more"
pipeisneedediftheoutputislongerthanonescreen.
mantopic
Displaythecontentsofthesystemmanualpages（help）onthetopic.Trymanmanfirst.Press"
toquittheviewer.Thecommandinfotopicworkssimilarandmaycontainmoreup-to-dateinformation.Manualpagescanbehardtoread.Tryany_command--helpforshort,easytodigesthelponacommand.Ifmoreinfoneeded,havealooktothedirectory/usr/doc.Todisplaymanualpagefromaspecificsection,Imayusesomethinglikeinthisexample:
man3exit（thisdisplaysaninfoonthecommandexitfromsection3ofthemanualpages）.
apropostopic
Givemethelistofthecommandsthathavesomethingtotodowithmytopic.
helpcommand
Displaybriefinfoonabash（shell）build-incommand.
ls
Listthecontentofthecurrentdirect
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