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January2000
p68–78
Self-DeterminationTheoryandtheFacilitationofIntrinsicMotivation,SocialDevelopment,andWell-Being
[Articles]
Ryan,RichardM.1,2;
Deci,EdwardL.1,3
1DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester
2CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoRichardM.Ryan,DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester,Rochester,NY14627.Electronicmailmaybesentto********************.edu.
3CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoEdwardL.Deci,DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester,Rochester,NY14627.Electronicmailmaybesentto********************.edu.
ThisworkwassupportedinpartbyresearchGrantMH-53385fromtheNationalInstituteofMentalHealth.WethankallofthemembersoftheHumanMotivationResearchGroupattheUniversityofRochesterwhohavecontributedtotheseideasandresearch,andtoJenniferLaGuardia,CharlesCouchman,andPhyllisJoefortheirspecifichelpwiththisarticle.
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Outline
*Abstract
*Self-DeterminationTheory
*TheNatureofMotivation
*IntrinsicMotivation
*Self-RegulationofExtrinsicMotivation
*FacilitatingIntegrationofExtrinsicMotivation
*AlienationandItsPrevention
*PsychologicalNeedsandMentalHealth
*Conclusions
*References
Graphics
*Figure1
Abstract
Humanbeingscanbeproactiveandengagedor,alternatively,passiveandalienated,largelyasafunctionofthesocialconditionsinwhichtheydevelopandfunction.Accordingly,researchguidedbyself-determinationtheoryhasfocusedonthesocial–contextualconditionsthatfacilitateversusforestallthenaturalprocessesofself-motivationandhealthypsychologicaldevelopment.Specifically,factorshavebeenexaminedthatenhanceversusundermineintrinsicmotivation,self-regulation,andwell-being.Thefindingshaveledtothepostulateofthreeinnatepsychologicalneeds—competence,autonomy,andrelatedness—whichwhensatisfiedyieldenhancedself-motivationandmentalhealthandwhenthwartedleadtodiminishedmotivationandwell-being.Alsoconsideredisthesignificanceofthesepsychologicalneedsandprocesseswithindomainssuchashealthcare,education,work,sport,religion,andpsychotherapy.
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Thefullestrepresentationsofhumanityshowpeopletobecurious,vital,andself-motivated.Attheirbest,theyareagenticandinspired,strivingtolearn;
extendthemselves;
masternewskills;
andapplytheirtalentsresponsibly.Thatmostpeopleshowconsiderableeffort,agency,andcommitmentintheirlivesappears,infact,tobemorenormativethanexceptional,suggestingsomeverypositiveandpersistentfeaturesofhumannature.
Yet,itisalsoclearthatthehumanspiritcanbediminishedorcrushedandthatindividualssometimesrejectgrowthandresponsibility.Regardlessofsocialstrataorculturalorigin,examplesofbothchildrenandadultswhoareapathetic,alienated,andirresponsibleareabundant.Suchnon-optimalhumanfunctioningcanbeobservednotonlyinourpsychologicalclinicsbutalsoamongthemillionswho,forhoursaday,sitpassivelybeforetheirtelevisions,stareblanklyfromthebackoftheirclassrooms,orwaitlistlesslyfortheweekendastheygoabouttheirjobs.Thepersistent,proactive,andpositivetendenciesofhumannatureareclearlynotinvariantlyapparent.
Thefactthathumannature,phenotypicallyexpressed,canbeeitheractiveorpassive,constructiveorindolent,suggestsmorethanmeredispositionaldifferencesandisafunctionofmorethanjustbiologicalendowments.Italsobespeaksawiderangeofreactionstosocialenvironmentsthatisworthyofourmostintensescientificinvestigation.Specifically,socialcontextscatalyzebothwithin-andbetween-persondifferencesinmotivationandpersonalgrowth,resultinginpeoplebeingmoreself-motivated,energized,andintegratedinsomesituations,domains,andculturesthaninothers.Researchontheconditionsthatfosterversusunderminepositivehumanpotentialshasboththeoreticalimportandpracticalsignificancebecauseitcancontributenotonlytoformalknowledgeofthecausesofhumanbehaviorbutalsotothedesignofsocialenvironmentsthatoptimizepeople'
sdevelopment,performance,andwell-being.Researchguidedbyself-determinationtheory(SDT)hashadanongoingconcernwithpreciselytheseissues(Deci&
Ryan,1985,1991;
Ryan,1995).
Self-DeterminationTheory
SDTisanapproachtohumanmotivationandpersonalitythatusestraditionalempiricalmethodswhileemployinganorganismicmetatheorythathighlightstheimportanceofhumans'
evolvedinnerresourcesforpersonalitydevelopmentandbehavioralself-regulation(Ryan,Kuhl,&
Deci,1997).Thus,itsarenaistheinvestigationofpeople'
sinherentgrowthtendenciesandinnatepsychologicalneedsthatarethebasisfortheirself-motivationandpersonalityintegration,aswellasfortheconditionsthatfosterthosepositiveprocesses.Inductively,usingtheempiricalprocess,wehaveidentifiedthreesuchneeds—theneedsforcompetence(Harter,1978;
White,1963),relatedness(Baumeister&
Leary,1995;
Reis,1994),andautonomy(deCharms,1968;
Deci,1975)—thatappeartobeessentialforfacilitatingoptimalfunctioningofthenaturalpropensitiesforgrowthandintegration,aswellasforconstructivesocialdevelopmentandpersonalwell-being.
MuchoftheresearchguidedbySDThasalsoexaminedenvironmentalfactorsthathinderorundermineself-motivation,socialfunctioning,andpersonalwell-being.Althoughmanyspecificdeleteriouseffectshavebeenexplored,theresearchsuggeststhatthesedetrimentscanbemostparsimoniouslydescribedintermsofthwartingthethreebasicpsychologicalneeds.Thus,SDTisconcernednotonlywiththespecificnatureofpositivedevelopmentaltendencies,butitalsoexaminessocialenvironmentsthatareantagonistictowardthesetendencies.
TheempiricalmethodsusedinmuchoftheSDTresearchhavebeenintheBaconiantradition,inthatsocialcontextualvariableshavebeendirectlymanipulatedtoexaminetheireffectsonbothinternalprocessesandbehavioralmanifestations.Theuseofexperimentalparadigmshasallowedustospecifytheconditionsunderwhichpeople'
snaturalactivityandconstructivenesswillflourish,aswellasthosethatpromotealackofself-motivationandsocialintegration.Inthisway,wehaveusedexperimentalmethodswithoutacceptingthemechanisticorefficientcausalmeta-theoriesthathavetypicallybeenassociatedwiththosemethods.
InthisarticlewereviewworkguidedbySDT,addressingitsimplicationsforthreeimportantoutcomes.Webeginwithanexaminationofintrinsicmotivation,theprototypicmanifestationofthehumantendencytowardlearningandcreativity,andweconsiderresearchspecifyingconditionsthatfacilitateversusforestallthisspecialtypeofmotivation.Second,wepresentananalysisofself-regulation,whichconcernshowpeopletakeinsocialvaluesandextrinsiccontingenciesandprogressivelytransformthemintopersonalvaluesandself-motivations.Inthatdiscussion,weoutlinedifferentformsofinternalizedmotivation,addressingtheirbehavioralandexperientialcorrelatesandtheconditionsthatarelikelytopromotethesedifferentmotivations.Third,wefocusonstudiesthathavedirectlyexaminedtheimpactofpsychologicalneedfulfillmentonhealthandwell-being.
TheNatureofMotivation
Motivationconcernsenergy,direction,persistenceandequifinality—allaspectsofactivationandintention.Motivationhasbeenacentralandperennialissueinthefieldofpsychology,foritisatthecoreofbiological,cognitive,andsocialregulation.Perhapsmoreimportant,intherealworld,motivationishighlyvaluedbecauseofitsconsequences:
Motivationproduces.Itisthereforeofpreeminentconcerntothoseinrolessuchasmanager,teacher,religiousleader,coach,healthcareprovider,andparentthatinvolvemobilizingotherstoact.
Althoughmotivationisoftentreatedasasingularconstruct,evensuperficialreflectionsuggeststhatpeoplearemovedtoactbyverydifferenttypesoffactors,withhighlyvariedexperiencesandconsequences.Peoplecanbemotivatedbecausetheyvalueanactivityorbecausethereisstrongexternalcoercion.Theycanbeurgedintoactionbyanabidinginterestorbyabribe.Theycanbehavefromasenseofpersonalcommitmenttoexcelorfromfearofbeingsurveilled.Thesecontrastsbetweencasesofhavinginternalmotivationversusbeingexternallypressuredaresurelyfamiliartoeveryone.Theissueofwhetherpeoplestandbehindabehavioroutoftheirinterestsandvalues,ordoitforreasonsexternaltotheself,isamatterofsignificanceineveryculture(e.g.,Johnson,1993)andrepresentsabasicdimensionbywhichpeoplemakesenseoftheirownandothers'
behavior(deCharms,1968;
Heider,1958;
Ryan&
Connell,1989).
Comparisonsbetweenpeoplewhosemotivationisauthentic(literally,self-authoredorendorsed)andthosewhoaremerelyexternallycontrolledforanactiontypicallyrevealthattheformer,relativetothelatter,h