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2synchronic共时:
atsomepointoftime时间点现代语言学是共时
Diachronic历时:
throughtime
3speechandwriting
4langueandparole语言和言语
是瑞士Saussure20世纪初提出来的,langue是abstractlinguisticsystem而parole是actualuse
Langue:
convention约定俗成;
abstract抽象;
relativelystable相对稳定
Parole:
actualuse实际应用;
concrete具体;
variable多变
5Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用
由Chomsky于20世纪50年代末期提出
Competenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage;
performancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication。
现代语言学家认为competence更有研究价值
4和5的区别:
Saussuretookasociologicalview社会学角度;
Chomskytookapsychologicalpointofview心理学角度,认为语言是大脑的能力
6traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistic
Language定义
语言的区别性特征(由美国语言学家CharlesHockett在1960年提出)
1Arbitrariness:
任意性nologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds,但是,也不是完全任意的itisnotentirelyarbitray如拟声词onomatopoeicwords和复合词compoundwords。
2Productivity:
创造性theycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore。
~isuniquetohumanlanguage。
3Duality:
双重性
4Displacement移位性
5Culturaltransmission文化传递性
语言的功能:
1thedescriptivefunction;
2theexpressivefunction;
3thesocialfunction
1theprimaryfunctionoflanguage语言最主要的功能,toconveyfactualinformation事实
2emotiveandattitudinalfunction,suppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues个人情感
3interpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenple人际交往
6个谈话元素6elementsby俄国出生的Jakobson
Addresser说话者—emotive情感功能表达attitude
Addressee听话者—conative意动功能影响行动祈使句
Context语境—referential所指功能传递信息
Message信息—poetic诗学功能语言本身的美丽诗歌
Contact接触—phaticcommunion交感功能社会关系问候语
Code语码—metalinguistic元语言功能用语言解释用眼本身
20世纪70年代初British语言学家MAKHalliday对小孩语言研究提出了
theideational概念功能经验与逻辑的关联
theinterpersonal人际功能社会关系
thetextual语篇功能语言与环境的关联
第二章phonology
Speechandwritingarethe2mediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthe2mediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting,languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssounds.
Phonetics语音学:
articulatoryphonetics发音语音学itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview;
auditoryphonetics听觉语音学itlooksatthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview;
acousticphonetics声学语音学itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves声波
发音器官1:
pharyngealcavity咽腔-thethroat;
2oralcavity口腔-themouth;
3nasalcavity鼻腔-thenose
1voiceless清音(withoutcausingvibration没有震动无声的,vocalcords声带完全分离);
voiced浊音(causingvibration声带紧闭有气流通过);
glottalstop声门塞音
Broadtranscription宽式标音法narrow~严式标音法的最主要区别是严式有diacritics附加符号(变音符号)InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)国际音标
【p】在pit中是aspirated送气的;
而在spit中是unaspirated不送气的在严式标音中在右上方用小的h表示送气的音
ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds:
consonants辅音andvowels元音
元辅的区别inproducingvoweltheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionwhatsoever
辅音的分类:
1mannerofarticulation发音方式2placeofarticulation发音位置
1stops爆破音【p,b,t,d,k,g】;
fricatives摩擦音【f,v,s,z,ʃ,ʒ,θ,ð
,h】;
affricates塞擦音【tʃ,dʒ】;
liquids流(颤)音【l,r】;
nasals鼻音【m,n,ŋ】;
glides滑音【w,j】2bilabial双唇音【p,b,m,w】;
labiodental唇齿音【f,v】;
dental齿音【θ,ð
】;
alveolar齿龈音【t,d,s,z,n,l,r】;
palatal腭音【ʃ,ʒ,tʃ,dʒ,j】;
velar软腭音【k,g,ŋ】;
glottal声门音【h】
元音的分类:
1thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,2theopennessofthemouth,3theshape
ofthemouth,4thelengthofthevowels
1accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest:
Front,【i:
,i,e,æ
,ɑ】;
Central,【ə:
,ə,ʌ】Back,【u:
,u,ɔ:
,ɔ,a:
】
2closevowels,【i:
,i,u:
,u】;
semi-closevowels【e,ə:
】;
semi-openvowels【ə,ɔ:
openvowels【æ
,a,ʌ,ɔ,a:
3allthefrontandcentralvowelsareunrounded非圆唇vowels;
allthebackvowels,except【ɑ:
】,arerounded圆唇;
4tensevowels有长音符元音andlaxvowels无长音符元音
单元音monophthongs双元音diphthongs:
whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions【ei,ai,au,əu,ɔi,iə,eə,uə】
RP:
ReceivedPronunciation被接受的发音(英语)
GA:
GeneralAmerican通用美音(美国)
Vowelglides音渡thereisanaudiblechangeofthequalityofsoundthroughoutthearticulation
音系学和语音学的区别Phonologyandphoneticsdifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguage.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguagefrompatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
Phonetician语音学家thevariousversionsofthe【l】sounddonotoccuratrandominEnglish,theirdistributionfollowsanicelycomplementarypattern互补形式
Whatistrueinonelanguagemaynotbetrueinanotherlanguage
Phone音素isaphoneticunitorsegment,buta~doesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t
Phoneme音位isaphonologicalunitthatisofdistinctivevalue。
Itisanabstractunit。
Itis
notanyparticularsound。
Aphonemeiscapableofdistinguishingmeaning音位是语言中有区别词义功能的最小语音单位
Allophone音位变体thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalled~ofthatphoneme,byphoneticcontext,butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandomorhaphazard,itisrule-governed
Phonemiccontrast音位对仗【p】,【b】可区分意义
Complementarydistribution互补分布【ɭ】,【ɫ】不可区分意义
Minimalpair最小对比对2differentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesamepositioninthestrings,the2soundcombinationsaresaidtoforma~符合三个条件1theyrdifferentinmeaning2theydifferinonlyonesound3thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings列举pillbilltillkilldillgill组成minimalset;
beatbitbetbatbootbutbaitbiteboat【i:
,u:
,ʌ,ei,ai,əu】
Somerulesinphonology音系序列规则
1sequentialrules序列规则1【s】2【p,t,k】3【l,r,w】springstrictsquaresplendidscream
2assimilationrules同化规则nasalization鼻音化以及拼写同化如possibleimpossible
3deletionrule删除规则deletea【g】whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant【b】词末,且前为鼻音
Suprasegmentalfeatures—stress,tone,intonation超音段特征-重音,声调,语调
可区别意义
Stress重音:
wordstress;
sentencestress.
ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,可改变partofspeech词性thenounhasthe~onthefirstsyllable音节andthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable。
Englishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement列blackbirdgreenhousehotdog对句子而言,强调noun。
Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion
Tone声调candistinguishmeaning
Tonelanguage声调语言Englishisnota~,ourmothertongueChineseisatypicaltonelanguage.
4tones:
level阴平、rise阳平、fall-rise上声、fall去声
Bilabial
Labio-dental
Dental
Alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Stop
VL
p
t
k
VD
b
d
g
Fricatives
f
θ
s
ʃ
h
v
ð
z
ʒ
Affricates
(tʃ)
tʃ
(dʒ)
dʒ
Nasals
m
n
ŋ
Liquids
lr
Glides
w
j
Intonation语调在句子中Englishhas4basictypesof~:
thefallingtone降调(陈述句)、therisingtone升调(疑问句)、thefall-risetone降升调、therise-falltone升降调(选择疑问句)
第三章Morphology形态学
研究词的内在结构及词的构造规则
Word:
aphysicallydefinableunit自然的有界限的单位
Lexeme词位:
被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在与最小单位之下的抽象单位,而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的
词的特性:
stability稳定性;
relativeuninterruptibility相续连续性;
aminimumfreeform最小的自由形式
Openclasswords或contentwords:
名、动、adj、ad
Closeclasswords或grammaticalorfunctionalwords:
conjunction连词、preposition介词、article冠词、pronoun代词
Morpheme语素:
theminimalunitsofmeaning是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
Themostimportantcomponentofawordstructureisthemorpheme.-thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction列reader分为read和er两个语素
语素的分类:
1allmonomorphemic单语素(wordsrfreemorpheme)自由语素;
compound复合词
2boundmorpheme粘着语素:
包括1inflectional~曲折语素(指语法词尾:
负数,所有格;
-s,-ing,-ed,-en,-er,-est)不改变词类,只在词干后面添加一个微妙或微小的语法意义;
2derivational~派生语素(词缀:
prefix、suffix)
顺序:
root(stem)+derivational+inflectional
Allomorph语素变体:
冠词a和an以及负数s在结尾读音的不同
构词法:
1compound复合词2derivation派生词3invention新创词语4abbreviation缩写词(advertisement-ad;
bicycle-bike):
1clipping(telephone---phonememorandum---memo;
electronicmail---e-mail;
highfidelity---hi-fi;
taxicab---taxi;
influenza---flu)2Initialsandacronyms:
VOABBCWTO;
UNESCO-----UnitedNationsEducation,ScienceandCultureOrganizationAIDS[eidz]-----adquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome3Blending混成法:
smoke+fog---smog;
breakfast+lunch---brunchmedical+care---medicare;
Europe+Asia---Eu'
rasia欧亚大陆5back-formation逆构词法6analogicalcreation类推构词7borrowing借词:
loanwords;
loanblends;
translationloans8conversion或zeroderivation(workn或v一词多性)
第四章Syntax句法学(研究句子内部结构)
按照交际功能(communicativefunction)可分为:
declarative陈述句、interrogative疑问句、imperative祈使句、exclamatory感叹句
句子的拓展:
1conjoning通过并列连词、连接词或parataxis意合;
embedding嵌入法(从句)
句子的结构:
thelinear线性(wordorder);
thehierarchical阶层(NP名词短语、VP动词短语等),用treediagram树形图表示
Lexicalcategories词汇范畴:
Majorlexicalcategory(Noun、Verb、Adj、Preposition介词);
Minorlexicalcategories(Det限定the,a,this,those、Deg程度词quite,very,more,so
Qual修饰语often,always,seldom,almost;
Aux助动词must,should,can,might;
Con连词and,but,or)
Traditionalapproachisalsoknownastraditionalgrammar
1Categoryinsyntaxusuallyreferstoclassesand