tpo21Word格式文档下载.docx
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Agriculturedevelopedslowlyamongpopulationsthathadanextensiveknowledgeofplantsandanimals.Changingfromhuntingandgatheringtoagriculturehadnoimmediateadvantages.Tostartwith,itforcedthepopulationtoabandonthenomad'
slifeandbecomesedentary,todevelopmethodsofstorageand,often,systemsofirrigation.Whilehunter-gatherersalwayshadtheoptionofmovingelsewherewhentheresourceswereexhausted,thisbecamemoredifficultwithfarming.Furthermore,asthearchaeologicalrecordshows,thestateofhealthofagriculturalistswasworsethanthatoftheircontemporaryhunter-gatherers.
【2】Traditionally,itwasbelievedthatthetransitiontoagriculturewastheresultofaworldwidepopulationcrisis.Itwasarguedthatoncehunter-gatherershadoccupiedthewholeworld,thepopulationstartedtogroweverywhereandfoodbecamescarce;
agriculturewouldhavebeenasolutiontothisproblem.Weknow,however,thatcontemporaryhunter-gatherersocietiescontroltheirpopulationinavarietyofways.Theideaofaworldpopulationcrisisisthereforeunlikely,althoughpopulationpressuremighthaveariseninsomeareas.
【3】Climaticchangesattheendoftheglacialperiod13,000yearsagohavebeenproposedtoaccountfortheemergenceoffarming.Thetemperatureincreaseddramaticallyinashortperiodoftime(yearsratherthancenturies),allowingforagrowthofthehunting-gatheringpopulationduetotheabundanceofresources.Therewere,however,fluctuationsintheclimaticconditions,withtheconsequencesthatwetconditionswerefollowedbydryones,sothattheavailabilityofplantsandanimalsoscillatedbrusquely.
【4】Itwouldappearthattheinstabilityoftheclimaticconditionsledpopulationsthathadoriginallybeennomadictosettledownanddevelopasedentarystyleoflife,whichledinturntopopulationgrowthandtotheneedtoincreasetheamountoffoodavailable.Farmingoriginatedintheseconditions.Lateron,itbecameverydifficulttochangebecauseofthesignificantexpansionofthesepopulations.Itcouldbeargued,however,thattheseconditionsarenotsufficienttoexplaintheoriginsofagriculture.Earthhadexperiencedpreviousperiodsofclimaticchange,andyetagriculturehadnotbeendeveloped.
【5】ItisarchaeologistStevenMithen'
sthesis,brilliantlydevelopedinhisbookThePrehistoryoftheMind(1996),thatapproximately40,000yearsagothehumanminddevelopedcognitivefluidity,thatis,theintegrationofthespecializationsofthemind:
technical,naturalhistory(gearedtounderstandingthebehavioranddistributionofnaturalresources),socialintelligence,andthelinguisticcapacity.Cognitivefluidityexplainstheappearanceofart,religion,andsophisticatedspeech.Oncehumanspossessedsuchamind,theywereabletofindanimaginativesolutiontoasituationofsevereeconomiccrisissuchasthefarmingdilemmadescribedearlier.Mithenproposestheexistenceoffourmentalelementstoaccountfortheemergenceoffarming:
(1)theabilitytodeveloptoolsthatcouldbeusedintensivelytoharvestandprocessplantresources;
(2)thetendencytouseplantsandanimalsasthemediumtoacquiresocialprestigeandpower;
(3)thetendencytodevelop"
socialrelationships"
withanimalsstructurallysimilartothosedevelopedwithpeople—specifically,theabilitytothinkofanimalsaspeople(anthropomorphism)andofpeopleasanimals(totemism);
and(4)thetendencytomanipulateplantsandanimals.
【6】Thefactthatsomesocietiesdomesticatedanimalsandplants,discoveredtheuseofmetaltools,becameliterate,anddevelopedastateshouldnotmakeusforgetthatothersdevelopedpastoralismorhorticulture(vegetablegardening)butremainedilliterateandatlowlevelsofproductivity;
afewenteredthemodernperiodashuntingandgatheringsocieties.Itisanthropologicallyimportanttoinquireintotheconditionsthatmadesomesocietiesadoptagriculturewhileothersremainedhunter-gatherersorhorticulturalists.However,itshouldbekeptinmindthatmanysocietiesthatknewofagriculturemoreorlessconsciouslyavoidedit.WhetherMithen'
sexplanationissatisfactoryisopentocontention,andsomeauthorshaverecentlyemphasizedtheimportanceofotherfactors.
托福阅读试题
1.Theword"
option"
inparagraph1isclosestinmeaningto
A.choice.
B.benefit.
C.idea.
D.experience.
2.Accordingtoparagraph1,allofthefollowingareadvantagesofhuntingandgatheringoveragricultureEXCEPT:
A.Itisahealthierlifestyle.
B.Itrequireslessknowledgeofplantsandanimals.
C.Itdoesnotneedstoragecapabilities.
D.Itisnottiedtoanyspecificlocation.
3.Theword"
therefore"
inparagraph2isclosestinmeaningto
A.intheory.
B.obviously.
C.frequently.
D.asaresult.
4.Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthewayparagraph2isorganized?
A.Apossibleexplanationforaphenomenonispresentedandthencriticized.
B.Twosimilarwaysofaccountingforapuzzlingfactareconsidered.
C.Earlysocieties'
responsetoaproblemiscontrastedwithcontemporarysocieties'
response.
D.Aprehistoricdevelopmentisfirstexplainedintraditionaltermsandthenincontemporaryterms.
5.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinparagraph3?
Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.
A.Theresourcesneededbythegrowinghuntingandgatheringpopulationincreasedrapidlyoncetemperaturesrose.
B.Dramatictemperatureincreasesandthesimultaneousgrowthofthehuntingandgatheringpopulationledtotheneedformoreresources.
C.Highertemperaturesledtotheexistenceofincreasedresources,thusenablingthehuntingandgatheringpopulationtogrow.
D.Thedramatictemperatureincreaseoccurredduringthefewyearswhenabundantresourcesallowedthehuntingandgatheringpopulationtogrow.
6.Accordingtoparagraph3,theabundanceofresourcesfluctuatedsharplyaftertheendoftheglacialperiodbecause
A.locallyabundantresourceswerequicklyexhaustedbyhunter-gatherers.
B.thetemperaturebecamemuchhigherinsomeareasoverothers.
C.differenttypesofplantsandanimalsbecameavailableastheclimatechanged.
D.theamountofrainfallvariedradicallyfromoneperiodtothenext.
7.Itcanbeinferredfromparagraph4thatitwasdifficultforpeopletochangefromfarmingbacktohuntingandgatheringbecause
A.peoplehadbecomemoreusedtodifferenttypesoffood.
B.climaticconditionswerenolongerfavorableforhuntingandgathering.
C.populationshadbecometoolargetobesupportedbyhuntingandgathering.
D.thefarmer'
ssedentarylifewaseasierthanthehunter-gatherer'
snomadiclife.
8.Whydoestheauthorstatethat"
Earthhadexperiencedpreviousperiodsofclimaticchange,andyetagriculturehadnotbeendeveloped"
?
(inparagraph4)
A.Tosuggestthatclimatechangehadoccurredlongbeforethedevelopmentofagriculture.
B.Toarguethatclimatechangedoesnotproperlyexplainwhyagriculturedeveloped.
C.Tochallengetheassumptionthatagriculturedevelopedonlyinsomepartsoftheworld.
D.Toquestiontheclaimthatclimatechangeoccurredatthetimewhenagriculturedeveloped.
9.Theword"
imaginative"
inparagraph5isclosestinmeaningto
A.complex.
B.creative.
C.immediate.
D.reliable.
10.Accordingtoparagraph5,StevenMithenbelievesthatallofthefollowingcontributedtotheemergenceoffarmingEXCEPT
A.thedevelopmentofamindflexibleenoughtocomeupwithsolutionstocomplexproblems.
B.thetendencytouseplantsandanimalstoacquirepower.
C.thetendencytoemphasizethedifferencesbetweenanimalsandpeople.
D.theabilitytomaketoolsthatcouldbeusedforthelarge-scaleharvestingofplants.
11.Theword"
contention"
inparagraph6isclosestinmeaningto
A.investigation.
B.improvement.
C.debate.
D.interpretation.
12.Accordingtoparagraph6,whichofthefollowingisaweaknessofMithen'
sexplanation?
A.Itdoesnotclearlydistinguishagriculturefrompastoralismandhorticulture.
B.Itfailstoexplainwhysomesocietiesadoptedagriculturewhileothersdidnot.
C.Itexplainsthedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbutnotthedevelopmentofmetaltools.
D.Itoverlooksthefactthatilliteracyandlowproductivityremainproblemseventoday
13.Lookatthefoursquaresthatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?
Clickonasquaretoaddthesentencetothepassage.Becausehumanshadbuiltupthisknowledgeashunter-gatherers,itislogicaltoconcludethatovertimetheywouldhavebecomeextremelyefficient.
Paragraph7:
Howdiditcomeaboutthatfarmingdevelopedindependentlyinanumberofworldcenters(theSoutheastAsianmainland,SouthwestAsia,CentralAmerica,lowlandandhighlandSouthAmerica,andequatorialAfrica)atmoreorlessthesametime?
Agriculturedevelopedslowlyamongpopulationsthathadanextensiveknowledgeofplantsandanimals.【A】Changingfromhuntingandgatheringtoagriculturehadnoimmediateadvantages.【B】Tostartwith,itforcedthepopulationtoabandonthenomad'
slifeandbecamesedentary,todevelopmethodsofstorageand,oft