文学理论与批评 文学理论语研究相关网站韩山师范Word文档格式.docx

文学理论与批评 文学理论语研究相关网站韩山师范Word文档格式.docx

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NoahWebster

⏹2. 

CivilRightsMovement

⏹3. 

LeonardBloomfield

II.IntroductiontothePassage

⏹1.Thetypeofliterature:

---description

⏹2.Thepurposeofapieceofobjectivedescription:

---torecordandreproduceatruepicturewithopinionsandemotionsoftheauthorexcluded

⏹3.Waysofdevelopingapieceofobjectivedescription:

---tobeginwithabriefgeneralpicture,dividetheobjectintopartsandorganizethedetaileddescriptioninorderofspace

III.AimsandContentsofTeaching

●1.thecomprehensionofthetextandthemasteryoftheimportantlanguagepoints

●2.theparaphrasesofcertaincomplicatedordifficultsentences

●3.theenlargementofthestudents'

vocabulary

●4.thefamiliarisationwiththestylesofcompositionanddevicesoffiguration

（Procedureofteaching:

1.Questionsandanswers;

2.Analysisofthestructureandlanguage;

3.Detailedstudyofthetext;

4.Supplementaryandtext-bookexercises）

IV.RhetoricalDevices

1. 

metonymy2. 

synecdoche3. 

sarcasm4. 

alliteration

V.TextAnalysis

VI.SpecialDifficulties

identifyingfiguresofspeech

translatingsomesentences

paraphrasingsomesentences

⏹4. 

outlinerequirements

VII.QuestionsforDiscussion

⏹1.WhatcriticalviewsdidthepopularpressexpressonthepublicationofWebster’sThirdNewInternationalDictionary

Howmucheffortandmoneywasspentonthemakingofthisdictionary?

Whyarenewdictionariesneeded?

Whatdoesthewritersayaboutspellingandpronunciation?

⏹5. 

HastheThirdNewInternationalDictionaryanyfaults?

I.Backgroundinformation

●Webster,Noah（Oct.16,1748-May28,1843）Americanlexicographerandphilologist,borninWestHartford,Conn.AYalegraduate.

●HisElementarySpellingBook（thefirstpartoftheGrammaticalInstituteoftheEnglishLanguage）andTheAmericanDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguageestablishedthenobilityandvitalityoftheAmericanLanguage.

●Heholdsthatthespellingandgrammarofalanguagemustbebasedonactualusageratherthanartificialprinciples.Andthuslaidafoundationforthe20thcenturylexicography.

●TheElementarySpellingBook,firstpublishedinthelateyearsofthe18thcent.,standardizedAmericanspellingandby1850,whenthewholepopulationwasunder23million,wassoldat1millioncopiesannually.

●TheAmericanDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,hisgreatestwork,waspublishedin1828.Ofthe70,000words,12,000hadnotappearedinanyotherdictionariesbefore.Withinoneyear,allthe2,500copiesissuedinAmericanandthe3,000copiesinBritainweresoldout.

●In1840,thesecondeditionwasafailureandhehadtosellthecopyrighttoMerriamPublishingCompanywhichthereafterbecametheMerriam-WebsterIncorporation.Webster'

sothercontributionsincludeeffortsinthepassageofanationalcopyrightlaw,inthefoundingoftheAmherstCollegeetc.

●Dictionary:

apublishedlist,inalphabeticalorder,ofthewordsofalanguage,explaininganddefiningthem,orinthecaseofabilingualdictionary,translatingthemintoanotherlanguage.

●Inthe20thcent.,Americandictionarymakersbegantoadoptcriteriaofuseratherthanofetymologicalpurity.DictionarieswereproducedinChina,Greece,Islam,andothercomplexearlycultures.

●ThefirstmodernexamplesoflexicographyarethoughttobeNathanBailey'

sUniversalEtymologicalEnglishDictionary（1721）andhislargerDictionariumBritannicum（1730）,whichservedSamuelJohnson,

●whowasconsideredasEngland'

sfirstcompletemanofletters,inpreparinghisDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage（1755）,thefirstcomprehensiveEnglishlexicography.

●ThenextgreatlexicographerwasNoahWebster.HisAmericanDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguagehasbeenskilfullyrevisedandabridgedovertheyears,therebyretainingitspopularity.Asix-volumeAmericanencyclopaedicdictionary,TheCenturyDictionary,wascompletedin1891.

●AmericanDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage---1828

●1840,secondedition,failure,copyrightsoldtoMerriam

●1961,thirdedition,2752pages,460,000entries,200,000usageexamples,3,000pictorialillustrationsandmorethan1,000synonyms

●Britishlexicographersfromthe19thC.on,begantocollectandorganizeexamplesofusage.

●In1857,thePhilologicalSocietybegancollectingdatedexamplesofusage,culminatinginthepublication（1928）ofthemonumental,unrivalledlexiconknownastheNewEnglishDictionary,theOxfordEnglishDictionary（OED）orMurray'

sDictionary.

●Twomajorshortereditionsexist:

TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofCurrentEnglishandtheShorterOxfordEnglishDictionary.Otheradvancesinlexicographyarereflectedinthefrequentlyrevisedcollegiateordeskdictionaries,suchastheWebster'

sNewCollegiateDictionary.

●Encyclopedia:

bookorsetofbooksgivinginformationabouteverybranchofknowledge,oraboutoneparticularsubject,witharticlesinalphabeticalorder

●lexicon:

dictionary,esp.ofanancientlanguageorofwordsfromasinglesubject

●thesaurus:

bookcontaininglistsofwordsandphrasesgroupedaccordingtotheirmeaningsortypes（athesaurusofslang）

Whatisadictionary?

Dictionaryisabookthatcontainsaselectedlistofwordsarrangedinaalphabeticalorder.Itexplainstheirmeaningsandgivesinformationaboutthem.Inadictionary,apersoncanlookupawordquickly,discoverwhatitmeans,andlearnhowitispronounced.Mostmoderndictionariesdescribethefactsofalanguageaseducatedspeakersandwritersuseit.Theyarecalleddescriptivedictionariesbecauseadictionaryeditordoesnotchangethefactsofalanguage.Manyolderdictionariestriedtodescriberules.Someofwhichdidnotagreewiththewaypeoplecommonlytalkedorwrote.Thesesbooksarecalledprescriptivedictionaries.

Howtouseadictionary?

Beforeusingadictionary,oneshouldbecomefamiliarwiththemethods,principlesandscopeofthebookbecausevariousdictionariesarearrangedindifferentways.ManyAmericandictionariesarrangeallentriesinasinglealphabeticallist.Othersputabbreviations,geographicalandbiographicalnames,andforeignwordsandphrasesinseparatelists,usuallyattheendofbook.Allgooddictionariestodayhaveintroductorysectionsthatexplainwhatthebookcontainsandhowitisarranged.

Thefirstthingadictionaryentryshowsishowtospellawordandhowtodivideitintosyllables.Accentmarksandsymbolsthatareexplainedinthebooktellhowtopronouncetheword.Manydictionariesalsotellwhatpartofspeechthewordis.Forexample,theylistboyasanoun,andspeakasaverb.

Definitionsofthewordusuallyfollow.Somedictionarieslistthemostcommonlyusedmeaningofthewordfirst.Othersarrangethemeaningshistorically,sothatthefirstmeaninglistedistheonethatoccurredfirstinthelanguage.Somedictionariesalsousethewordinasentenceorphrasetohelpdefineit.Sometimespicturesordrawingsareaddedtoprovidemoreinformationabouttheentry.

Afterthedefinition,manydictionariesincludealistofsynonyms,orwordswithaboutthesamemeaningasthewordsbeingdefined.Otherinformationisoftenincludedaboutetymology（thehistoryororiginofaword）.Manydictionariesalsohaveusagelabels,suchasSlangandDialect;

subjectlabels,suchasBiologyorElectronics;

andregionallabels,suchasBritishorUSInaddition,usagenotesexplainimportantpointsaboutthewayawordiscommonlyused.

Whatinformationdodictionariescontain?

Dictionariesgivethemeaningsofmanykindsofwords.Mostgeneraldictionariesinclude

（1）theordinarywordsofeverydaylife,suchasbread,run,andwith;

（2）literarywordsusedinformalwriting,suchasaggregation,despoil,andincontrovertible;

（3）technicalwordsusedchieflyoninformaloccasions,suchasgabandwimp;

（5）wordsusedinwritingtogiveanold-fashionedflavor,suchasawearyandavaunt;

（6）wordsnotusedtodaybutfoundinthewritingsofsomeauthors,suchasplaisterfroplaster;

（7）wordsorphrasesfromotherlanguages,suchascoupdetatfromFrench,tofufromJapanese,andbarriofromSpanish;

（8）idioms（groupsofwordswithmeaningsdifferentfromtheirliteralmeanings）,suchassplithairsandunderthethumbof;

（9）abbreviations,suchasU.S.A.,and（10）importantpropernames,suchasBuddhaandJupiter.

Whydodictionarieshavetobeadaptedandexpanded?

Nodictionaryrecordsallthewordsofourlanguage.Infact,nooneknowsexactlyhowmanyEnglishwordsthereare.Besidesordinarywordsusedineverydayspeech,theEnglishlanguageincludesthousandsofgeographicalnames.Therearethousandsofwordsthatarenolongerused.Andtherearehundredsofthousandsoftechnicalterms,includingmirethan750,000namesofinsectsalone.Newwordsarecoinedfronewscientificandtechnicaldiscoveries,andslangwordsandspecialvocabulariesconstantlyspringup.Asnationsdrawclosertogetherthroughtradeandtravel,satellitecommunication,andsharingoftechnology,languagestendtoborrowmoreandmorewordsfromeachother.Thatiswhydictionaryeditorsmustbeselectiveinthewordstheydecidetoinclude.

CulturalBackground

1）NoahWebsterandAmerica’sFirstDictionary

2）Webster’sThirdNewInternational

3）Atlantic,NewYorkTimes,Life,TheJournalofAmericanbarAssociation

4）SamuelJohnsonand