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▪languageasasystemofsigns:

thesignasaunionofthesignifierandthesignified

▪nonaturalorinevitableconnectionbetweenthesignifierandthesignified

▪anarbitrarywayoforganizingtheworldintoconceptsandcategories

▪twoimportantcharacteristicsoflinguisticsigns:

▪thearbitraryrelationbetweenthesignifierandthesignified

▪thelinearnatureofthesignified

LangueandParole

▪Langueisthesystemofalanguage

▪itiswhattheindividualassimilateswhenhelearnsalanguage;

▪itissocialandabstract;

▪Itenablesthemembersofaspeechcommunitytocommunicatelinguistically.

▪Paroleisactualspeech

▪itisindividualandconcrete;

▪itistherealizationofthelanguagesystem.

Distinctionbetweenlangueandparole

⏹separatewhatissocialfromwhatisindividualandwhatisessentialfromaccidental

⏹leadtothedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology

⏹phoneticsstudiesspeechsoundsfromaphysicalpointofview

⏹phonologystudiesthefunctionalunitswithinthelinguisticsystem

⏹leadtothedistinctionbetweenutteranceandsentence

⏹anutteranceisaunitofparole

⏹asentenceisaunitoflangue.

SynchronicandDiachronicLinguistics

⏹Synchroniclinguistics:

concernedwithlanguageatonepointintime

⏹Diachroniclinguistics:

concernedwiththedevelopmentorevolutionoflanguage

⏹Distinctionbetweensynchronicanddiachronicstudy:

synchronicstudyisgivenpriority

⏹therecannotbelogicalcomparisonsordiachronicstudieswithoutsynchronicstudies

⏹notionoflanguagechangeshouldbecarefullyused

⏹thereisacloseconnectionbetweenthestudyofdiachronicchangeandsynchronicvariation

SyntagmaticandParadigmaticRelations

⏹Syntagmaticrelations:

⏹relationsalinguisticelemententersintowithotherelementsinaserialorlinearstructureinwritingorinthetemporalstreamofspeech

⏹relationsofcooccurrence

⏹relationsthatlinkthewholestructuretoitspartsandviceversa

⏹Paradigmaticrelations:

⏹relationsthatobtainbetweenelements

⏹Priorityisgiventoparadigmaticrelationsinmodernlinguistics.

Saussure’sContributionstoSemiotics

⏹Bethefirsttodefinethesymbolicnatureofhumanlanguage.

⏹Sign:

anintersectionorrelationshiporformandmeaning,whereformissomethingconcrete,andmeaningissomethingmentalorcognitive.

⏹Threetypesofsigns:

icon,index,andsymbol.

⏹Icon:

asignwhoseformhasactualcharacteristicsofitsmeaning;

⏹Index:

asignwhoseformhascharacteristicswhichareonlyassociatedinnaturewithitsmeaning;

⏹Symbol:

asignwhoseformisarbitrarilyorconventionallyassociatedwithitsmeaning.

Saussure’sContributionstoSemiotics

⏹withrespecttothestudyofthesyntacticandsemanticdimensionsoftexts

⏹arichworkinghypothesisdemonstratingthesystematiccharacteroflanguage（orliterature）ateachparticularperiodoflife

⏹Theapplicationofthetwocategoriesofparoleandlanguetoliterature

Questions:

1.WhatarethemaininfluencesofdeSaussureonmodernlinguistics?

2.Whatimplicaturescanyoudrawfromthedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

3.WhatarethemaindifferencesofthefocusofstudybetweenSaussure’sandHalliday’sintermsofsyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations?

4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?

Why?

ChapterTwo

EuropeanFunctionalism

ThePragueSchool

Introduction

♦oneofthemostinfluentialschoolsoflinguisticthoughtinpre-warlinguistics

♦theapproachtothestudyoflanguageasasynchronicsystem

♦theimportanceofthesocialfunctionoflanguage

♦threepointsareofspecialimportance:

–thesynchronicstudyoflanguage

–emphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage

ContributionsofThePragueSchool

♦distinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology

–phoneticsbelongstoparole

–phonologybelongstolangue

–thenotionofthephonemeasanabstractunitofthesoundsystem

♦thefunctionalconceptionoflanguageasmanifestedintheanalysisofsentences

–Mathesius’sdistinctionbetweentheme&

rheme

•thetheme,whichisafactorfactsalreadyknown

•therheme,whichcontainsallthenewinformationtobetransmitted

–others’investigationofthefunctionsoflanguage

PhonologyandPhonologicalOppositions

♦Trubetzkov’sdistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology

♦Trubetzkov’snotionofphoneme

–ithasdiscriminativepower

–itcannotbeanalyzedintosmallersegments

–itcanonlybedeterminedbydistinctivefeatures

♦phonemesasbeingcomposedofanumberofphonologicallysignificantdistinctivefeatures

♦Trubetzkov’sninephonologicaloppositions:

–Bilateralopposition（双边对立）

–Multilateralopposition（多变对立）

–Proportionalopposition（均衡对立）

–Isolatedopposition（孤立对立）

–Privativeopposition（否定对立）

–Gradualopposition（分级对立）

–Equipollentopposition（等价对立）

–Neutralizableopposition（抵消对立）

–Constantopposition（永恒对立）

Trubetzkov’sContributionstoPhonologicalTheory

♦distinctivefunctionsofspeechsoundsandanaccuratedefinitionforthephoneme

♦thesphereofphonologicalstudies

♦theinterdependentrelationsbetweenphonemes

♦methodologiesforphonologicalstudies

Jokobson’sConceptofDistinctiveFeatures

♦Thedistinctivefeaturesareexplicitlyregardedasbinarychoicesandhencetheycouldbelistedaspairedoppositions,e.g.‘vocality’v.‘consonantality’,‘vocality’v.‘non-vocality’.

♦Thesefeaturesweredefinedwithreferencenotonlytoarticulatorypositionsbutalsotoacousticpropertiesofspeech-sounds.

♦Itwashopedthattheproposedlistofdistinctivefeatureswouldbeuniversal.

FunctionalSentencePerspective（FSP）

♦InterestsinFSP:

–Mathesius（1924,1939）

–Firbas（1960’s）

–Halliday（1967,1968,1970）

♦DefinitionandscopeofFSP:

–ananalysisofutterancesortextsintermsoftheinformationtheycontain

–theeffectofthedistributionofknown（orgiven）informationandnewinformationindiscourse.

♦Firbas’snotionofCommunicativeDynamism（CD）:

–Linguisticcommunicationisnotastaticbutadynamicphenomenon.

–CDismeanttomeasuretheamountofinformationanelementcarriesinasentence（e.g.Hewasangry.）

–Thevariouselementsofanutteranceisthoughttohavevaryingdegreesofcommunicativedynamism.

Firbas:

conceptof“context”

♦区分了四种语境：

–交际双方共有的经验知识（一般语境）；

–语言交际正在进行时的直接语境（范围稍窄）；

–刚刚出现的上文（范围更窄）；

–句子本身（范围最窄，“语境依赖”指的是这种语境）。

ThematicProgressioninDiscourse

♦Danes（1974）suggeststhatthemehastwofunctions:

–Connectingbackandlinkingintothepreviousdiscourse

–Servingasapointofdepartureforthefurtherdevelopmentofthediscourse

♦Danes（1974）proposesthreemaintypesofthematicprogression（TP）:

–SimplelinearTP

–TPwithacontinuous（constant）theme

–TPwithderivedTs

思考题

♦布拉格学派最明显的特点是什么？

♦布拉格学派对功能语言学的发展有哪些贡献？

♦布拉格学派与美国结构主义有哪些区别？

FrenchFunctionalism

♦Function:

–theidentification&

classificationoflinguisticunits

–thedescriptionoflinguisticstructure

–theexplanationofscopeandregularitiesoflanguagechange

♦Twotypesoffunction:

–thefunctionlanguageinhumaninteraction

–thefunctionalinguisticunitincontrasttootherunitsateachlevelofanalysis

♦Principleofeconomy

–theneedsofcommunication

–humaninertia

HollandFunctionalism:

SimonDik’sFunctionalGrammar:

♦Afunctionalviewoflanguage:

–ittakesafunctionalviewoflanguage;

–itattachesprimaryimportancetofunctionalrelationsatdifferentlevelsintheorganizationofgrammar;

–itwishestobepracticallyapplicabletotheanalysisofdiverseaspectsoflanguageandlanguageuse.

♦Threetypesorlevelsoffunction:

–Semanticfunction（Agent,Goal,Recipient,etc.）,whichdefinetherolesthatparticipantsplayinstatesofaffairs,asdesignatedbypredications.

–Syntacticfunctions（Subject,Object,etc.）,whichdefinedifferentperspectivesthroughwhichstatesofaffairsarepresentedinlinguisticexpressions.

–Pragmaticfunctions（ThemeandTail,TopicandFocus）,whichdefinestheinformationalstatusofconstituentsoflinguisticexpressionsasusedingivensettings.

ChapterThree

TheAmericanStructuralism

AmericanlinguisticsbeforeTGgrammar

⏹FranzBoas（1858-1942）:

recordedanddescribedmanyAmericanIndianlanguagesanddevelopedawholesetofproceduresandtechniquesfortheirinvestigation.

⏹EdwardSapir（1884-1939）:

expandedanddevelopedthistradition.

⏹LeonardBloomfield（1887-1949）:

whowasthefiguremostcloselyassociatedwithdistinguishinganddevelopingastructuralistapproach.

PropertiesofAmericanStructuralism

⏹Languageasastructureoflevelsandinterrelatedpartsinsteadofanunanalysablecontinuum.

⏹Linguisticdescriptionhastobeobjectivedealingwithfactsphysicallymanifested.

⏹Segmentationandclassificationastheprincipaltechniquesofanalysisanddescription.

⏹Structuralistthinkingassociatedwithbehaviouristpsychology.

⏹Rel