语言学笔记.docx
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语言学笔记
IIntroduction
1.Whatislinguistics?
Linguisticsisthesystematic/scientificstudyoflanguage.
Whatistherelationshipbetweendata&theory?
▲Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdataishardlyvalid;datawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.
Theprocessofstudymaybeasfollows:
1)Certainlinguisticsfactsarefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,sogeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.
2)Onthebasisofthesegeneralizationshypothesesareformulatedtoaccountforthefacts.Thesehypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations.
3)Atheoryisconstructedabouthowlanguageworks.
2.Whatisalinguist?
Whatisthemaintaskforhim?
Apersonwhostudieslinguistics.Hedoesnotneedtobeabletousealargenumberoflanguagesforcommunicationpurposes,butheshouldhaveawideexperienceofdifferenttypesoflanguages.Histaskisnottolearntouseanyparticularlanguage,buttostudyhoweachlanguageisconstructed,howitisusedbyitsspeakers,andhowitisrelatedtootherlanguages.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromonesocialclasstoanother,howitchangesfromonehistoricalperiodtothenext,andhowchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue.Tosumup,histaskisbasicallytostudyandunderstandthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichalllanguagesarebuilt.
3.Whatarethescopesoflinguistics?
▲Phonetics:
thestudyofhumanspeechsound
▲Phonology:
thesoundpattering
▲Morphology:
thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed
▲Syntax:
thearrangementofsentences
▲Semantics:
thestudyofmeaning
▲Pragmatics:
thestudyofhowspeakersusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication
▲Psycholinguistics:
therelationshipbetweenlanguage&themind
▲Historiclinguistics:
thestudyoflanguagechange
▲Sociolinguistics:
therelationshipbetweenlanguage&society
▲Appliedlinguistics:
theapplicationoflinguistictheories&principlestolanguageteaching(narrowsense)
▲Anthropologicallinguistics
▲Neurologicallinguistics
▲Mathematicallinguistics
▲Computationallinguistics
4.Whataresomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics?
(重要区别)
①Synchroniclinguistics(共时语言学):
thestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime.
Diachroniclinguistics(历时语言学):
anapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodtime.
Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.
e.g.ThesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish
②Prescriptivevs.descriptive(规定性与描写性)
▲Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsactuallyare.
▲Do/don’tsayX.(Prescriptive)
▲Peopledo/don’tsayX.(descriptive)
③Speech&writing
④Langue&parole
Whomadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?
Andwhen?
▲F.deSaussure(aSwisslinguist)intheearly20thcentury.
⑤Competence&performance(语言能力与语言应用)
▲1)Whoproposedthedistinctionbetweenthem?
▲N.Chomsky(Americanlinguist);AspectsofthetheoryofSyntax《句法理论的若干问题》
▲2)Whatiscompetence&whatisperformance?
▲Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage(语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解)
▲Performance:
theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用)
WhatarethedifferencesbetweenSaussure’sandChomsky’sdistinction?
▲SaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflanguageisamatterofsocialconventionandChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.
▲ForthestudentsofEnglish,competenceneedstobenurturedintheprocessofenhancingperformance,butcompetencecallsformoreeffortsatthebeginningstagewhilesuccessinperformancemaymotivatetheacquisitionofcompetence.
Modernlinguistics&traditionalgrammar
Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthem?
1.Linguisticsisdescriptivenotprescriptive.
2.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.
3.LinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguageintoaLatin-basedoruniversalframework.
Whatislanguage?
Definition:
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
Whatarethemainfeaturesoflanguage?
▲1)languagemustbeasystem.
▲2)languageisarbitrary.
▲3)symbolicnature:
wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention.
▲4)languageisvocalforspokenlanguagecamemuchearlierthanwrittenlanguage.
▲5)languageishuman-specific.
语言对人类至关重要,但很难具体阐述是什么使我们的语言优于动物的”语言”。
Birdsingsandbeedances它们也是在使用语言吗?
实际上不是。
罗素(BertrandRussell)曾经说过:
不管一只狗可以多么流利地bark,它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但诚实。
那么,是什么是它区别与其他物种所使用的“语言”?
----即人类语言性质的特征是什么?
Whatarethedefiningproperties(designfeatures识别特征)ofhumanlanguage?
Whoputforwardthem?
(Americanlinguist:
CharlesHockett)
1).Productivity(多产性):
theabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingthesentencesthatwehaveneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothesituationinwhichtheyareuttered.
Whyislanguageproductive?
2)Duality(二重性).Becauseofdualitythespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.
3)Arbitrariness(任意性):
theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thereisnologicalrelationshipbetweenmeaningsandsounds.
▲Whatisthelinkbetweenalinguisticsign&itsmeaning?
▲Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative.Thatis,itallowslanguagetochange.Onthecontrary,theothersideofarbitrariness---conventionality(约定性)makeslearningalanguagelaborious.Forlearnersofforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthnoticingthanitsarbitrariness.
任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力,而语言的约定性又使语言学习变得费力。
约定性比任意性更值得注意。
4)Displacement(移位性):
oneofthepropertiesoflanguagewhichmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharenotpresent:
realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfutureorinfarawayplaces.
5)Culturaltransmission(文化传递):
whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherbyinstinct.
Functionsoflanguage(added):
1.Phaticfunction(应酬功能):
languageusedforestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas.
“Howareyou?
”“Niceday,isn’tit?
”
AtermusedbytheBritish-PolishanthropologistMalinowskitorefertocommunicationbetweenpeoplewhichisnotintendedtoseekorconveyinformationbuthasthesocialfunctionofestablishingormaintainingsocialcontact.
2.Directivefunction(指示功能):
languageusedtogetthehearertodosomething.
Shutthedoor.
Iadviseyounottodoit.(asuggestion)
Haveaseat.(anoffer)
Docomein,please.(aninvitation)
3.Informativefunction(信息功能):
languageusedtotellwhatthespeakerbelieves,togiveinformationaboutfacts,ortoreasonthingsout.
Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit.
4.Interrogativefunction(疑问功能):
languageusedtogetinformationfromothers.
Whendidyouarrive?
Whatdoyouthinkofit?
Howdoyoufeelnow?
Rhetoricalquestions(反意疑问句),however,donothavesuchfunction,astheydonotexpectanswer.
5.Expressivefunction(表达功能):
languageusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker(evaluation;appraisement;assertion;etc.).
Goodheavens!
MyGod!
I’mextremelysorryabout…
6.Evocativefunction(召唤功能):
languageusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimistoamuse,startle,anger,soothe,worryorplease.(Jokes;advertising;propaganda;etc.)
7.Performativefunction(施为功能):
languageusedtoperformactions,to“dothings”.
Ideclarethemeetingopen.
Ideclarethewarupon...
Isentenceyoutenyearsofhardlabor.
II.Phonology
1.Whatarethespeechsounds(语音)?
Speechsoundsaresoundsthatconveymeaninginhumanlinguisticcommunication.
2.Whatisphonetics?
Itisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.
3.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?
Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学):
studiesthehumanspeechorgans,andthewayinwhichthespeechsoundsareproduced.
Acousticphonetics(声学语音学):
dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds;itstudiesthesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph(光谱仪).
Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):
thestudyoftheperceptionofsoundsbythehumanear.
4.Narrow&broadtranscriptions
IPA:
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(国际音标):
asystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistoflettersanddiacritics.
Diacritic(变音符号):
amarkplacedover,under,orthroughalettertoshowthatithasasoundvaluedifferentfromthatofthesameletterwithoutthemark.E.g.Ç;ñ;Ð
Narrowtranscription/phoneticnotation:
thephonetictranscriptionwithdiacritics(严式音标/语音注音法)
Broadtranscription/phonemicnotation:
generallyusedindictionariesandlanguagetextbooks(withoutdiacritics)宽式音标/音位注音法
5.Phone,phoneme,allophone
1)Phone:
aphoneticunitorsegment.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets[p].音素
2)Phoneme:
anabstracta