精益生产的定义一些概念和实际问题外文翻译Word文档下载推荐.docx

精益生产的定义一些概念和实际问题外文翻译Word文档下载推荐.docx

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someconceptualandpracticalissues

Discriminantvalidityoflean

SowhatisthenthedifferencebetweenTQMandleanproduction?

InthefollowingsectionLeanandTQMarecomparedbasedontheanalysismadebyHackmanandWageman（1995）.Thediscussionisdonewiththreedifferentaspects;

basicassumptions,changeprinciplesandinterventions:

Basicassumptions

Quality.Inlean,qualitydoesnotreceivethesameamountofattentionasintheTQMliterature.Themainfocusintheleanliteratureisonjust-in-time（JIT）production.JITisassumedtodecreasetotalcost,aswellashighlightproblems.Thisisdonethroughreducingtheresourcesinthesystem,sothatbuffersdonotcoveruptheproblemsthatarise.Intheshort-termperspective,thereductionofresourcesimpliesadirectreductionofcost.Inthelongrun,thereductionandsubsequenteliminationofbuffersisassumedtohighlighttheproblemsthatexistinproduction,thusbeingavitalsourceofcontinuousimprovement（e.g.Shingo,1984;

Ohno,1988;

Krafcik,1988Acommonopinionisthatthepurposeofleaniswasteelimination. ）.Theliteraturereviewdoesnotshowsupportforthisbeingtheverypurpose,butwasteeliminationisdefinitelyanimportantaspectoftheconcept.Someauthorsarguethatwasteisreducedinordertoincreasethevalueforthecustomer（e.g.Dennis,2002;

Bicheno,2004）,whereasothersarguethatitisastrategyforreducingcost（e.g.Ohno,1988;

Monden,1998）.ReducingwasteisalsoasignificantpartofTQM,butunderthebannerofpoor-quality-costs（seeHackmanandWageman,1995;

Sö

rqvist,1998）.AmajordifferencebetweenTQMandleaninthisaspectistheprecisionindefiningwaste.Inthemajorityoftheleanliterature,wasteormudaisbasedonthesevenforms[1]definedbyOhno（1988）,whereasTQMhasaverygeneraldefinitionofpoor-quality-costs,includingeverythingthatcouldbeeliminatedthroughimprovement（Sö

rqvist,1998）.

Employeesandthequalityoftheirwork.Onemajorcritiqueoftheleanconceptisthatitisgenerallyweakconcerningtheemployees”perspective.Theproponentsofleanproductionusuallyhaveastronginstrumentalandmanagerialperspective,discussingemployeesintermsofcomponentsintheproductionsystem（seeKamata,1982;

Berggren,1992,1993Theextensive ）.discussionaboutjidokaandpokayokeintheleanliteraturesuggeststhatemployeescannotbetrustedtoproducegoodquality,thuscreatinganecessityforremovingthepossibilityofhumanerrorfromthesystem.

Organizationsassystems.OnethingthatleanandTQMhaveincommonisseeingtheorganizationasasystem（seeWomackandJones,2003;

Bicheno,2004）.Butthereisaslightdifferenceinperspectivebetweenthetwoconcepts.WhereasTQMhasastrongfocusontheinternalstructureandintegrationofdepartmentswithintheorganization,leanstressesasupplychainperspective,seeingtheinternalproductionoperationsasapartofavaluestreamfromthesub-supplierstotheendcustomer（e.g.RotherandShook,1998;

JonesandWomack,2002）.

Qualityistheresponsibilityofseniormanagement.ThisisanotherperspectivethatleanandTQMshare,butagainwithsomedifferences.TQM-managersshouldcreatestructuresthatsupporttheemployeesinproducingproductsofhighquality（Deming,1986;

HackmanandWageman,1995）.Theideaisthesameinlean,buttherationalefordoingthisseemstobecenteredaroundeliminatingthehumanfactorfromthesystemthroughjidokaandpokayoke.UsingtheterminologyofMcGregor,onecouldarguethatTQMseemstobebasedontheoryY,whereasleanseemstobebasedontheoryX（seeEzzameletal.,2001）.

Changeprinciples

Focusonprocesses.Withintheleanconceptthetermvaluestreamisusuallypreferred（WomackandJones,2003）.ThetermprocessisusuallyusedatalowerlevelofabstractionthatTQMtheoristswouldcallsub-processesoractivities（seeRiley,1998）.Theconceptionthatmanagementshouldanalyzeandimprovetheprocessesandtraintheemployeesisalsosharedbythetwoconcepts.

Managementbyfact.Theliteratureonleandoesnotreallystressthemanagementbyfactsexplicitly.However,thisisimplicitinthedescriptionofleanpractices,manyofwhichareanalyticaltoolsdesignedtohelpachieveJITproduction.AlthoughthisisasharedperspectivebetweenleanandTQM,thereisadifference.WithinTQMtheanalysisofvariabilitythroughusingstatisticaltoolsisacentralconcept（HackmanandWageman,1995）.Intheleantradition,thisisnotseenasequallyimportant.Infact,someauthorsargueagainsttheuseofstatisticaltoolsforanalyzingproductionperformance,recommendingalternativetoolssuchasincreasedinspectionandvisualizationofproblems（e.g.Dennis,2002;

Liker,2004）.

Learningandcontinuousimprovement.InthewordsofHackmanandWageman（1995）TQMis“pro-learning,withavengeance”（p.330）.Thelearningaspectsarenotemphasizedasmuchinliteratureonlean.Asdiscussedabove,theleanliteratureisgenerallyweakeronthehumanbehaviorside,focusingmoreoninstrumentaltechniquesforimprovingsystemperformance.Thereisaclearfocusoncontinuousimprovement,whichimpliesthatsomeformoflearningisrequired.However,thequestioniswhoislearning.TQMisfocusedonstimulatingcreativityandindividualeffortsforimprovement（HackmanandWageman,1995）,whereasleanplacesstrongemphasisonthestandardizationofworkandcollectivelearning（NiepceandMolleman,1998;

ThompsonandWallace,1996）.

Interventions

Analysisofcustomerrequirements.CustomerfocusisoneofthehallmarksofTQM,whereeveryimprovementshouldbebasedonaninvestigationofthecustomer'

srequirements,whetherthecustomerisinternalorexternal.Theleanconceptdoesnotemphasizecustomerinterests.Someauthorsarguethattheverypurposeofleanistopleasethecustomer（e.g.Dennis,2002）,butmethodsforanalyzingcustomerrequirementsareextremelyrareinthereviewedliterature,suggestingthisisnotatypicalleanintervention.

Supplierpartnerships.ThesuppliersareseenasimportantinbothleanandTQM.Bothconceptstressthepointthatlongtermpartnershipsshouldbemadewithsuppliersandthatimprovementsshouldbedoneincollaborationwiththem.Althoughthismatterisnotdiscussedbyallauthorsinthisanalysis,themajorityofthemdo（seeTableI）.

Improvementteams.QualitycircleshaveacentralroleinmuchoftheTQMliterature,andcanbeputtouseinproblemsolvingorimprovementactivities.Intheleanliterature,improvementteamsareexplicitlydiscussedbyjustabouthalfofthereviewedauthors.However,theyareoftenimplicatedindiscussionsaboutimprovementactivities.

Scientificmethodsforperformancemeasurementandimprovement.BothTQMandleanemployvariousscientificmethodsforanalysisandevaluationofperformance.However,thesemethodsdiffersignificantly,andthetoolsassociatedwithoneconceptaregenerallynotmentionedinliteratureontheotherone.Thepurposeofmeasurementsalsodiffers.InTQMmeasurementsaredoneinordertoidentifyproblemsandtodocumentimprovement,whereasleantheoristsarguethatmeasurementsshouldbemadeforplanningandsynchronizationpurposes;

e.g.forsettingproductionrate（seeOhno,1988;

Bicheno,2004）.

Processmanagementtechniques.Asdiscussedabove,thetermprocessisusedinslightlydifferentwaysbyauthorsonTQMandlean.Intheleanliterature,differenttechniquesarepresentedforbothoverallprocesslevelandindividualactivities.Atanorganizationallevelvaluestreammapping（VSM）canbeusedforhighlightingseveralkindsofproblemsintheprocesses（RotherandShook,1998）.Atamoreoperationallevel,differenttime/workstudytechniquesarediscussed,e.g.so-calledspaghetticharts（e.g.Bicheno,2004）.

LeanandTQM–samebutdifferent

Ataphilosophicallevel,leanandTQMhavemanyideasincommon,inparticularconcerningcontinuousimprovementandthesystemsperspective.However,atamoreoperationallevel,thetwoconceptsdiffersignificantly.Thefundamentalvaluesofthetwoconceptsarealsoquitedifferent,especiallyregardinghumanisticvalues.

Conclusions

Thereisnoagreedupondefinitionofleanthatcouldbefoundinthereviewedliterature,andtheformulationsoftheoverallpurposeoftheconceptaredivergent.Discomfortingasthismayseemforleanproponents,thereseemstobequitegoodagreementonthecharacteristicsthatdefinetheconcept,leadingtotheconclusionthattheconceptisdefinedinoperationaltermsalone.Formulatingadefinitionthatcapturesallthedimensionsofleanisaformidablechallenge.

AccordingtoHinesetal.（2004）leanisconstantlyevolving,implyingthatany“definition”oftheconceptwillonlybea“stillimage”ofamovingtarget,onlybeingvalidinacertainpointintime.Thismaybeanexplanationtotheapparentdifferencesbetweenauthorsonthesubject.Basedonthis,itishardnottoraisethequestionofwhetheraconsistentdefinitionofleanispossibletoproduce.Also,onecanquestionwhetheradefinitionwillbeusefulatall,regardingtheeverchangingnatureofthetypeofconstructsthatmanagementconceptssuchasTQMandleanare.Nonetheless,attemptshavebeenmadeinthisarticletopresenttheessentialsofleanproductionandconveyitsmostsalientphilosophicalelements,hopefullyclearingupsomeoftheconfusionthatsurroundstheconcept.

LeanisalsosignificantlydifferentfromitsclosestrelativeTQM,leadingtotheconclusionthatleanisamanagementconceptofitsown.TheconclusionfromShahandWard（2003）thatTQMandotherbundlesarepartsofleanisn