英语专业 修辞学论文Metaphors in Business English隐喻在商务英语中的应用Word下载.docx
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Abstract
Thispaperintroducessomebasicconceptsandfeaturesofmetaphorssuchasdifferentdefinitionsofmetaphor,howmetaphorswork,andthecommontypesofmetaphor.However,metaphorisnowadaysnotonlyregardedasafigureofspeechbutalsoanimportanttoolinculturecommunication.Asoneofthemostvividrhetoricaldevices,metaphorisusedquitefrequentlyinlanguageusedindifferentfieldsindailylife.Thisstudyalsogivessomeexamplestoprovethatinthefieldofbusinessthereexistmetaphors,whicharevitaltounderstandsomeeconomicknowledgeandcertainphenomenabetter.
KeyWords:
metaphor;
sourcedomain;
targetdomain;
business;
.BackgroundKnowledgeofMetaphor
Theideaofmetaphorcanbetracedbackto
Aristotle
who,inhis“Poetics”(around335BC),defines“metaphor”asfollows:
“Metaphoristheapplicationofastrangetermeithertransferredfromthegenusandappliedtothespeciesorfromthespeciesandappliedtothegenus,orfromonespeciestoanotherorelseby
analogy.”
Tomakeitclear,wecanregardmetaphor
asaliteraryfigureofspeech
thatusesanimage,storyor
tangiblethingtorepresentalesstangiblethingorsomeintangiblequalityoridea.Inclassicaltheoriesoflanguage,metaphorwasseenasamatteroflanguage,andeverydaylanguagehadnometaphor.ButaccordingtoLakoffandJohnson(1993),theword“metaphor”hascometobeuseddifferentlyincontemporaryresearch,andordinaryeverydayEnglishinvariousfieldsislargelymetaphorical.Wehavefoundthatmetaphorispervasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction.Thispapergivesmanyexamplestoprovethatintheeconomyfieldthereexistmetaphors,whicharevitaltounderstandrelatedeconomicknowledgeandcertainphenomenabetter.
Acommondefinitionofametaphorcanbedescribedasacomparisonthatshowshowtwothingsthatarenotalikeinmostwaysaresimilarinanotherimportantway.InMetaphorsWeLiveBy,GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnsonexplainhowametaphorissimplyunderstandingandexperiencingonekindofthingintermsofanother.Theycallthisconcepta‘conduitmetaphor’,whichmeansthataspeakercanputideasorobjectsintowordsorcontainers,andthensendthemalongachannel,orconduit,toalistenerwhotakesthatideaorobjectoutofthecontainerandmakesmeaningofit.Inotherwords,communicationissomethingthatideasgointo.Thecontainerisseparatefromtheideasthemselves.LakoffandJohnsongiveseveralexamplesofdailymetaphorsweuse,suchas“Argumentiswar”and“Timeismoney.”(Johnson,Lakoff,1980).
Aregularmetaphorcontainsthetenorandthevehicle.Thetenoristhesubjecttowhichattributesareascribed.Thevehicleisthesubjectfromwhichtheattributesarederived.Theyarebroadlyequivalenttothenotionsof
target
and
sourcedomains
in
conceptualmetaphor
theory.Themetaphorcanbealsounderstoodasamapping(inthemathematicalsense)fromasourcedomaintoatargetdomain.(Lakoff,G&
Johnson,M.1980)Metaphorbasesonlikenessandassociation:
whenweseesomethingweneverknowbefore,wespontaneouslyassociateitwithaconceptoranobjectwearealreadyfamiliarwithandtrytofindthelikenessbetweenthetwo.Whentheassociationhappens,metaphorhappens.Forexample,
Cashcowsrequirelittleinvestmentandgeneratecashthatcanbeusedtoinvestinotherbusinessunits.
Inone’sregularcognition,cowreferstoananimalwithknownconceptssuchasproducingmilk,multiplicationandhardworking.Fromcows,peoplecangetmuchincomecontinuouslywithlessinvestment.Here,themeaningof“cashcow”changesmetaphoricallyto“aprojectthatgeneratesacontinuousflowofmoney”andsomethingsimilarwith“moneymaker”and“money-spinner”.Therefore,wecanseefromthisexamplethatoneofthekeyaspectsofametaphorisaspecifictransferenceofawordfromonecontextintoanother.
Wecouldalsounderstandmetaphorinaverysimplesense:
inmetaphor,onethingisindirectlycomparedtoanotherknownthing,withoutthewordlikeoras.Thustherelationshipbetweenthemisimpliedorunstated.Thefollowingisanothergoodexample:
You’dbetteroffunderUmbrella.
Thisisanadvertisementforatravelinsuranceagency.Inthisadvertisement,“umbrella”justreferstothistravelinsuranceagency.Wemaynoticethatthevehicleofthemetaphorisnotstated.Infact,thevehicleisthestaffofthe“Umbrella”agency.Ifthecustomerscarryanumbrellawiththem,theumbrellawillbeveryusefultothembothinrainydaysandshiningdays.Inourcognition,theword“umbrella”isalwayslinkedwithsafetyandprotection,whicharetheknownconceptsinourmind.Aslongaspeopleassociatetheseconceptsandfindthelikeness,theywillrealizewhatthisagencycoulddoforthem.Byusingmetaphor,thecorporateimagewillsurelybecomebetterandalsomorevividforcustomers.
Therearefourcommontypesofmetaphor:
deadmetaphor,extendedmetaphor,mixedmetaphor,andabsolutemetaphor.A
deadmetaphor
isoneinwhichthesenseofatransferredimageisabsent.Examples:
“tograspaconcept”and“togatherwhatyou’veunderstood”usephysicalactionasametaphorforunderstanding.Mostpeopledonotvisualizetheaction—deadmetaphorsnormallygounnoticed.An
extendedmetaphor
(conceit)establishesaprincipalsubject(comparison)andsubsidiarysubjects(comparisons).A
mixedmetaphor
isonethatleapsfromoneidentificationtoasecondidentificationinconsistentwiththefirst.Absolutemetaphor
denotesafigureoraconceptthatcannotbereducedto,orreplacedwithsolelyconceptualthoughtandlanguage.
.MetaphorsinBusinessEnglish
Aswementionedbefore,metaphorsarenotmerelystylistic,butarecognitivelyimportantinotherfieldsaswell.AccordingtoLakoffandJohnson,metaphorsarepervasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguage,butalsointhoughtandaction.Therefore,metaphor,asoneofthemostvividrhetoricaldevices,isusedquitefrequentlyindifferentfieldsincludingbusiness.
Inbusiness,ametaphorcanbeusedinframingadisputeorsituation,orthemeansbywhichbusinessmen\businesswomenaddressorapproachanegotiationproblem.Forexample,themetaphorsusedinbusinessnegotiationscouldbecriticaltoimplyhowapersonperceivesthesituationandtosuggesthowtheymightreactorrespond.Andinbusinesstexts,linguistsfindthatmetaphorsmanilyappearasnounsandverbs.Inthisstudy,wewillmainlyanalyzesomecommonnounandverbmetaphorsinEnglishbusinesstextsinthefollowing.
a.NounMetaphor
Nounmetaphorsmainlybaseonthedirectorindirectcorrelationoftwothings.Theypushustorealizethelinkandthentofigureoutsomethingnewtousaccordingtowhatwearealreadyfamiliarwith.Or,nounmetaphorscouldmakepeopleunderstandsomebusinessconceptsmoreaccuratelybyborrowingsometermsfromotherfields,whichwillbewellillustratedbythefollowingexamples..
(1)Theelectricityfailurecausedthetrainservice’sparalysis.
(2)Hemadeacompletediagnosisofthecompany’sdailyrunning.
Inexample
(1),thewordparalysisisusedmetaphorically.Paralysis,whichusuallyreferstoadiseaseoflosingtheabilitytomoveabodypart,isatermborrowedfromthefieldofmedicinetoimplythatthetrainserviceisdisrupted.Inexample
(2),diagnosis,indicatingtheactofdiscoveringoridentifyingtheexactcauseofanillnessoraproblembydoctors,hereimpliesthattheactofdiscoveringandanalyzingtheproblemshappenedinthecompany’srunningisjustlikeadoctormakesadiagnosisofthepatient’sillness.
(3)Mostcentralbankersarehostiletotheideaofpuncturebubbles.
(4)Afterthesale,theybegantosolicitcomment.Theconsumer’sfeedbackwasgenerallyfavorable.
(5)ThepoliticalfalloutfromthegasolineshortagewasspreadinginAmericaatthattime.
Thewordswhichareusedmetaphoricallyintheseexamplesarealsoitalicized.Thewordbubbleiscommonlyusedasaballofairorgasinaliquid,oraballofairinsideasolidsubstancesuchasglass,forinstance,abubbleofoxygen,blowingbubblesintowaterthroughastraw.However,bubbleisalsofrequentlyusedinbusinessEnglish,indicatingagoodorluckysituationthatisunlikelytolast,orthereisasuddenendtoagoodorluckysituation.Oneofthemostcommonlyknowncharacteristicsofbubbleisgoodlookingbutveryfrailandeasytoburstatthesametime.Intheexample(3),thisfamiliarphenomenonofbubbleisusedtohelpreadersunderstandtheunfamiliarconceptsoneconomicsvividly.
Thewordfeedbackinexample(4)seemstobeusedmorecommonlynowadaysincludinginbusiness,andpeoplemaytakeitforgrantedthatitisnotnounmetaphor.However,feedbackoriginallymeasthattheunpleasantnoiseproducedbyelectricalequipmentsuchasanamplifierwhensomeofthepowerreturestothesystem.Therefore,feedback,usedasthemeaningofadvice,criticismorinformationabouthowgoodorusefulsthorsb’sworkis,isalsousedasnounmetaphor.
Thenounmetaphorinexample(5)isrelativelyusedalittletechnically.Falloutoriginallyindicatesdangerousradioactivedustthatisintheairafteranuclearexplosion.Itissomethingveryharmfultopeople.Inthisexample,falloutjustextendsthemeaningintothebadresultsofgasolineshortagewhichisspreadinglikedangerousradioactivedustintheUS.Bytheuseofmetaphor,theauthorvividlytellsreaderstheurgentsituationwhichisbadlyinfluencingthiscountrynow.
b.VerbMetaphor
Besidesnounmetaphors,verbmetaphorsarealsofrequentlyappliedinbusines