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propaganda.Theterm 

publicmedia 

islessusedandisdefinedas"

mediawhosemissionistoserveorengageapublic."

MarshallMcLuhan,oneofthebiggestcriticsinmedia'

shistory,broughtuptheideathat"

themediumisthemessage"

.

Massmediaareveryimportanttoolsofcommunication,throughwhichinformationispassedtoeventhefarthestendoftheworld.Theyenableustocommunicatewitheachotherbyhelpingustoovercomethebarriersoftimeandapace.

Kinds

1、TV

AfterWorldWarII,people’shomeswereinvadedbyapowerfulnewforce--television.Theideaofseeing"

live"

showsinthelivingroomwasimmediatelyattractive.Theeffectsofthispowerfulmediumarestillbeingmeasured.TelevisionhasdevelopedsinceWorldWarIIintothemostpopularmediumintheU

SandUK,onethathashadgreatinfluenceonAmericanwayoflife.VirtuallyeveryAmericanhousehold--98%in1999--hasatleastoneTVset.SevenintenEnglishmenin1991reportedgettingmostoftheirnewsfromTV.Threelargeprivately-ownednetworks--NBC,CBSandABC--claimed90percentoftheTVmarketfromthe1950sthroughthe1970swithfreebroadcasts.

CableTelevision

However,therapidspreadofpaycableTVinthe1980sbrokethehegemonyofthebigthree.By1999,closeto70%ofAmericanhouseholdshadsubscribedtocableTV.CableTV,carriedbycoaxialandfiber-opticcables,originatedin1948tobetterserveindividualsinmountainousorgeographicallyremoteareaswhocouldnotreceiveover-the-airTVstations.Thegenesisofcableasitisknowntodaystemsfromdevelopmentofthedomesticcommunicationssatellite,approvedbytheFederalCommunicationsCommissioninJanuary1973.

Thenewtechnologyofferedcableprogrammersacost-effectivemethodofnationalandinternationaldistribution.InDecember1975,HomeBoxOffice,anall-moviechannelownedbyTime,Inc.,becamethefirstprogrammertodistributeitssignalviasatellite.ThenextservicetousethesatellitewasalocaltelevisionstationinAtlantaownedbyTedTurner.Itbecameknownasthefirst"

superstation,"

bouncingitssignaloffasatellitetoreachanationwideaudience.ThesametechnologyallowedTurnerin1980tofoundtheCableNewsNetwork,CNN,theworld'

sfirst24-hourall-newschannel.Byearly1993,MTV,theleadingAmericanrockmusicTVnetwork,hadanaudienceof46millionintheUnitedStatesand32othercountries.Cabletelevisionhasalsobeensuccessfullyusedtoreachverydefinedaudiences.Beginninginthelate1970s,agrowingnumberofU.S.cablesystemsbegan"

narrowcasting"

orofferingtelevisionprogrammingwithanentirechanneltailoredtoanarrowsectionoftheaudience.

AdvancingdigitaltechnologyandincreasingwiringofU.S.citieswithfiber-opticcablethatpermitsmassivetransmissionofdigitalsignalsaregivingcableTVsubscribersahostofnewinteractiveservices.TheconvergenceofthecomputerwithTVispermittingahostofnew"

interactive"

servicesinwhichtheviewernolongerwatchespassively,forexample"

Moviesondemand"

whichallowsaviewertochoosebetweenseveralthousandvideosisoneinteractiveservice.Anotherexampleis"

shop-at-home"

channels.

PublicTelevision

U.S.publictelevisionstationsareindependentandservecommunityneeds.Allpublictelevisionorganizationsarelinkednationally,however,throughthreenationalorganizations:

the

CorporationforPublicBroadcasting（CPB）,createdbyCongressin1967tochannelfederalgovernmentfundingtostationsandindependentproducers;

thePublicBroadcastingService（PBS）,formedin1969andwhichtodaydistributesprogrammingandoperatesthesatellitesystemlinkingallpublicTVstations;

andtheAssociationofPublicTelevisionStations（APTS）,whichhelpsmemberpublicTVstationswithresearchandplanning.InadditiontothesepublicTVstations,thereareagrowingnumberofnoncommercialstationsrunbyChristianevangelisticministries,whichare,forthemostpart,supportedbydonationsfromviewersandmemberchurches.

2、Magazines

Thelate1800ssawthestartofopinionjournalsstillinfluentialacenturylater,includingtheAtlanticMonthly,theNation,andHarper'

s.Thelargestreadershipswerewon,however,bymagazinesthatcateredtopeople'

sincreasingleisuretimeandappetiteforconsumergoods,magazinessuchasCosmopolitan,theLadiesHomeJournal,andtheSaturdayEveningPost.Publisherswerenolongerjustsellingreadingmaterial;

theyweresellingreaderstoadvertisers.Becausenewspapersreachedonlylocalaudiences,popularmagazinesattractedadvertiserseagertoreachanationalaudiencefortheirproducts.Bytheearly1900s,magazineshadbecomemajormarketingdevices.

Atthesametime,anewbreedofnewspaperandmagazinewriterwasexposingsocialcorruption.Called"

muckrakers,"

thesewriterssparkedpublicpressureforgovernmentandbusinessreforms.Yetmagazinesdidnottrulydevelopasapowerfulshaperofnewsandpublicopinionuntilthe1920sand1930s,withthestartofthenewsweeklies.Timewaslaunchedin1923byHenryLuce（1898-1967）.Intendedforpeopletoobusytokeepupwithadailynewspaper,Timewasthefirstmagazinetoorganizenewsintoseparatedepartmentssuchasnationalaffairs,businessandscience.

Newsweek,usingmuchthesameformat,wasstartedin1933.OtherprominentnewsweekliesareBusinessWeekandU.S.NewsandWorldReport.

Magazinepublishershaveincreasinglytriedtoappealtoclearly-definedaudiences.Computertechnologyhashelpedpublisherstotargetspecial-interestaudiences.Asaresultofthisspecialization,thenumberofperiodicalspublishedintheUnitedStatesjumpedfrom6,960in1970tocloseto10,000in1999.

3、Radio

ThebeginningofregularcommerciallylicensedsoundbroadcastingintheUnitedStatesin1920endedtheprintmonopolyoverthemediaandopenedthedoorstothemoreimmediateandpervasiveelectronicmedia.By1928,theUnitedStateshadthreenationalradionetworks-twoownedbyNBC（theNationalBroadcastingCompany）,andonebyCBS（theColumbiaBroadcastingSystem）.

Thoughmostlylistenedtoforentertainment,radio'

sinstant,on-the-spotreportsofdramaticeventsdrewhugeaudiencesthroughouttheGreatDepressionofthe1930sandWorldWarII.PresidentFranklinRooseveltrecognizedthepotentialofradiotoreachtheAmericanpublic,andduringhisfourterms（1933-1945）,hisradio"

firesidechats"

informedthenationontheprogressofpoliciestocountertheDepressionandondevelopmentsduringWorldWarII.AfterWorldWarII,television'

svisualimagesreplacedtheaudio-onlylimitationofradioasthepredominantentertainmentandnewsvehicle.Radioadaptedtothenewsituationbyreplacingentertainmentprogramswithaformatofmusicinterspersedwithnewsandfeatures.Inthe1950s,automobilemanufacturersbeganofferingcarradiosasstandardaccessories,andradioreceivedabigboostasAmericanstunedintheircarradiosastheydrovetoandfromwork.

TheexpansionanddominanceofFMradio,whichhasbettersoundqualitybutamorelimitedrangethantraditionalAM,representedthemajortechnicalchangeinradiointhe1970sand1980s.FMradio,aidedbytheinventionofeversmallerportableradiosandinexpensive"

Walkman"

headsets,dominatesmusicprograms,whileAMhasshiftedto"

talk"

andnewsformats.Barelyinexistence25yearsago,"

talkradio,"

inwhichcelebritiesandexpertsfromvariousfieldsanswerlistener"

call-in"

questionsandoffertheiradviceonvarioustopics,hasgrownspectacularlyinrecentyears.IthascontributedtothecomebackofAMradio.BothFMandAMradiohavebecomeincreasinglyspecialized.Musicformats,forinstance,compriseavarietyofspecializations--thetopfivein1991being"

countryandwestern,"

"

adultcontemporary,"

top40,"

religious"

and"

oldies."

InanerainwhichTVisclearlytheglamourmedium,thereachofradioisstillawesome.Ninety-ninepercentofAmericanhouseholdsin1999hadatleastoneradio;

theaverageisfiveperhousehold.Everyday,radioreaches80percentoftheU.S.populationatonetimeoranother.Revenuesmorethandoubledfrom$8.4billionin1990tomorethan$17billionin1999.

In1998,thenumberofU.S.commercialradiostationshadgrownto4,793AMstationsand5,662FMstations.Inaddition,thereare1,460publicradiostationsintheUnitedStates.Mostof