法律英语原文.docx
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法律英语原文
LessonOne:
LegalSystem法律制度
Background背景
自从哥伦布(ChristopherColumbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后,大批欧洲人便开始拥向这片"新大陆"。
不过,人们通常把第一批英国定居者(thefirstEnglishsettlers)于1607年到达弗吉尼亚(Virginia)的詹姆斯顿(Jamestown)视为美国法律制度历史的起点。
美国法制史可以大体上分为两个时期,即英属殖民地时期(thePeriodoftheEnglishColonies)和美利坚合众国时期(thePeriodoftheUnitedStates)。
虽然美国的法律制度是在英国法律传统的基础上形成和发展起来的,但是在近四百年的历史进程中,美国的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英国法律制度的特点,如公诉制度(publicprosecution)等。
美国属于普通法系(CommonLawLegalSystem)国家,其法律制度有两个基本特点:
其一是以分散制(decentralization)为原则;其二是以判例法(caselaw)为主体。
美国除联邦政府外,还有州政府、县政府、市政府、镇政府等等,而且这些政府都是相互独立的,各自在其管辖范围内享有一定的立法权和执法权。
因此,有人说美国是"一个有许多政府的国家"(acountryofmanygovernments);而美国的法律体系则是一个"零散的无系统"(fragmentalnosystem)。
诚然,美国现在也有很多成文法(writtenlaw)或制定法(statutorylaw),但是其法律制度仍是以判例法为主体的。
换言之,"遵从前例"(staredecisis)仍然是美国司法活动中最重要的原则之一。
以上两点对于理解美国的法律制度具有重要意义。
Text课文
PartOne
TheUnitedStatesisatonceaverynewnationandaveryoldnation.Itisanewnationcomparedwithmanyothercountries,anditisnew,too,inthesensethatitisconstantlybeingrenewedbytheadditionofnewelementsofpopulationandofnewStates.Butinothersensesitisold.Itistheoldestofthe"new"nations--thefirstonetobemadeoutofanOldWorldcolony.Ithastheoldestwrittenconstitution,theoldestcontinuousfederalsystem,andtheoldestpracticeofselfgovernmentofanynation.
OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericasyouthisthatthewholeofitshistorybelongsintheperiodsincetheinventionoftheprintingpress.Thewholeofitshistoryis,therefore,recorded:
indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhassocomprehensivearecordofitshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchasthosethatarelostinthelegendarypastofItalyorFranceorEnglandarepartoftheprintedrecordoftheUnitedStates.AndtheAmericanrecordisnotonlycomprehensive;itisimmense.ItembracesnotonlytherecordofthecolonialeraandoftheNationsince1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andtheintricatenetworkofrelationshipsbetweenStatesandNation.Thus,totakeaveryelementaryexample,thereportsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,andthereportsofsomeStatesarealmostequallyvoluminous:
thereaderwhowantstotracethehistoryoflawinAmericaisconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesoflegalcases.
Noonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthecharacterofapeopleoroftheirgovernment.Butwhenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsstrikeaconsistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearighttosaythatisthekeynote.Whenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddressthemselvesinthesameways,tothesameoverarchingproblems,wehavearighttoreadfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwecancallnationalcharacteristics.
PartTwo
TheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselawsystem.Mostfieldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensiveandsteadilygrowingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretationthroughcaselaw.KnowledgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueofworkingwithcaselawthereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingofAmericanlawandlegalmethodology.
TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyoverlocallaw--whichwasdecreedbytheitinerantjudgesoftheEnglishroyalcourt.Theenforcementofaclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,withtheresultthattheoriginalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"actions"similartothatofclassicalRomanlaw.Ifawritexisted(in1227)aclaimcouldbeenforced;therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithoutawrit,theclaimdidnotexist.Thissystembecameinflexiblewhenthe"ProvisionsofOxford"(1258)prohibitedthecreationofnewwrits,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"writuponthecase"allowedandwhichlaterledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.
Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledtothedevelopmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."Equity",initsgeneralmeaningofdoing"equity",decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlaterbyhisChancelloras"keeperoftheKing'sconscience",toaffordreliefinhardshipcases.Inthefifteenthcentury,however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedintoanindependentlegalsystemandjudiciary(CourtofChancery)whichcompetedwiththeordinarycommonlawcourts.Itsrulesandmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,inflexibleasinanylegalsystem.Specialcharacteristicsofequitylawinclude:
reliefintheformofspecificperformance(incontrasttothecommonlawawardofcompensatorydamages),theinjunction(atemporaryorfinalordertodoornottodoaspecificact),thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhichpermeatedtheentirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegalconcepts.However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefisinadequate.Forinstance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbegrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannotcompensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.
Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicialacceptanceorthroughexpressstatutoryprovision.Today,bothlegalsystemshavebeenmergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions(beginningwithNewYorkin1848),withtheresultthatthereisonlyoneformofcivilsuitinthesejurisdictionsaswellasinfederalpractice.OnlyfewStatescontinuetomaintainaseparatechancerycourt.Nevertheless,thereferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,ontheonehand,itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts(forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawofproperty)and,ontheotherhand,itisstillrelevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,forinstance,thereisarighttoatrialbyjury(onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inothercasesonlybeforethejudge).Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe"ordinary"commonlawreliefofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"extraordinary"equityremedyofspecificperformanceisavailable.
"Caselaw"describestheentirebodyofjudgemadelawandtodayincludescommonlawandequityprecedents.Inimpreciseandconfusingusagetheterms"commonlaw"and"caselaw"areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"commonlaw"inthisusageconnotingjudgemadelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."Caselaw"alwaysconnotesjudgemadelaw,while"commonlaw"incontrast--dependingonthemeaningintended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubjectmattersor,moreextensively,alljudgemadelaw.
LessonTwo:
LegalProfession法律职业
Background背景
美国的法律职业由律师、法官、检察官和法学教师组成。
不过,这几种人又都可以称为"律师"(lawyer),而且他们都可以是律师协会(Bar)成员。
由此可见,美国法律职业内部的"职业划分"并不象中国及世界上大多数国家那样严格和确定。
诚然,这里有语言习惯问题,但它也在一定程度上反映了美国各种法律工作者之间人员变换的频繁性,而且这种变换总以律师为中心。
美国的法官一般都从律师中产生,而且他们在担任法官期间仍可保留律师资格,只是不能从事律师业务而已。
美国的检察官与律师之间几乎没有任何职业差别。
实际上,美国的检察官就被称为律师(attorney)。
检察官与律师(我们中国人所熟悉之含义上的律师)之间的区别仅在于前者受雇于政府,后者受雇于私人或自己开业;前者在刑事案件中负责公诉,后者在刑事案件中负责辩护。
此外,美国的法学教师一般都是当地的律师。
美国律师之多,在世界上堪称第一。
据1984年的统计,美国共有649万名律师,其与人口的比例为1∶364。
美国律师多的主要原因是法律在其社会生活中起着非常重要的作用。
除各种法律纠纷外,人们从生到死、从结婚到离婚、从生活到工作,往往都需要律师的帮助。
有些人几乎事事都要请教律师。
诚然,这说明美国人具有很强的法律意识,但也说明美国的许多法律规定过于复杂。
一般来说,美国人认为到法院去解决社会生活中的法律纠纷是天经地义的,但这并不等于说美国人喜欢打官司。
例如,美国有一个流传颇广的谐音字谜:
"有一种套服无人喜欢,是什么?
"(Thereisakindofsuitsthatnobodylikes.Whatisit?
)回答是:
"打官司。
"(lawsuits.)其实,美国人事事找律师也往往出于无可奈何。
因此,美国的律师才得到了各种各样、褒贬不一的外号,如:
"租用之枪"(hiredguns);"讼棍"(shysters);"职业投刀手"(professionalknifethrowers);"限用之友"(limitedpurposefriends);"社会工程师"(socialengineers);"社会正义之斗士"(championsforsocialjustice)等。
Text课文
PartOne:
TheBar
Theregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachofwhichhasitsownrequirementsforadmissiontopractice.Mostrequirethreeyearsofcollegeandalawdegree.Eachstateadministersitsownwrittenexaminationtoapplicantsforitsbar.Almostallstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,adaylongmultiplechoicetest,towhichthestateaddsadaylongessayexaminationemphasizingitsownlaw.Asubstantialfractionofallapplicantssucceedonthefirsttry,andmanyofthosewhofailpassonalaterattempt.Inall,overfortythousandpersonssucceedinpassingtheseexaminationseachyearand,afteraninquiryintotheircharacter,areadmittedtothebarintheirrespectivestates.Noapprenticeshipisrequiredeitherbeforeorafteradmission.Therulesforadmissiontopracticebeforethefederalcourtsvarywiththecourt,butgenerallythoseentitledtopracticebeforethehighestcourtofastatemaybeadmittedbeforethefederalcourtsuponcompliancewithminorformalities.
Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyermaytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereonehasbeenadmitted.Itiscustomarytoretainlocalcounselformattersinotherjurisdictions.However,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmittedwithoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedforsometime,oftenfiveyears.
Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatisopentoothercitizens.Itisnotuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboardsofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyinpublicaffairs.Alawyerremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,anemployeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,andmayreturntoprivatepracticefromtheseotheractivities.Arelat