语言学讲义.docx

语言学讲义.docx

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语言学讲义

1.Linguistics

Definition:

thescientificstudyoflanguage.

ScientificProcesses:

observefacts—hypothesis—moreobservation—theory

Principles:

exhaustiveness,consistency,economy,objectivity.

PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmatics

ApplicationofLinguistics

Interdisciplinarysciences:

Psycholinguistics;

Sociolinguistics;

Appliedlinguistics

Neurolinguistics

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.

Languageisasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.

Therefore,languageandsocietyarecloselyrelated.

Languagechangesareoftencausedbysocialchanges.Thestudyoflanguage

withreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics.

Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtotheotherfieldstosolvesomeproblems.ThestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasAppliedLinguistics.

Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.

ThestudyofinterrelationshipbetweenBrainandLanguageiscalledNeurolinguistics.

2.1Whatislanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

System----elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules.Theycannotbearrangedatwill.

Arbitrary----thereisnointrinsic（logic）connectionbetweenasignanditsmeaning.

Symbols----wordsarejustthesignsassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention.

Vocal----theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.

Human----human-specific.

Communication----theexchangeofideas.

Vocal:

--primarysourceofcommunication;

--children’sacquisitionoflanguage;

Written（Advantages）:

---withoutlimitationofspace;

---withoutlimitationoftime;

---noteasytodistortinformation

2.2Designfeaturesoflanguage

Arbitrariness:

Theformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention..

Duality----languageisasystemwhichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevelsandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization..

Primarylevel:

soundlevel,meaningless

Secondarylevel:

meaninglevel（combinationofsoundsintomeaningfulwordsandthensentences）（themosteconomicalfeatureoflanguage）

Open-endedsystem----arelativelysetofdistinctsoundscanbecombinedintocomplexsignals.

Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.

e.g.1）Thered-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed.

2）Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancethatwerenew.（recursiveness）

Displacement----humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.

Culturaltransmission（innatebutlearnedbehavior）----genetictransmission

2.3theFunctionsofLanguage

Jecobson（1960）:

LinguisticsandPoetics

Referential（指称）Poetic（诗意）Emotive（情感）Conative（意动，使动）

Phatic（应酬）Metalingual（元语言）

M.A.K.Halliday（1994）:

AnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammar

Ideational（概念）Interpersonal（人际）Textual（语篇）

Someotherfunctions:

Performative（行使）Recreational（娱乐）

2.4Theoriginoflanguage

Thedivinesource:

Thenaturalsource:

bow-wowtheory,pooh-poohtheory,yo-he-hotheory

Theconventionalsource:

Naturalsource（evidence）

Onomatopoeia:

Sound-symbolism:

Metaphoricwayofnewwordformation:

Secondaryonomatopoeia

（soundsymbolism）Itmeansthatcertainsoundsandsoundsequencesareassociatedwithcertainsensesinanexpressiverelationship.

2.Phonetics&Phonology

1Whatisphonetics?

Thestudyofspeechsounds;itisconcernedwiththedescription,classification,andtranscriptionofallthespeechsoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.

Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview:

Fromthespeaker’spointofview:

howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds,whichresultsinArticulatoryPhonetics.

Fromthehearer’spointofview:

howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer,whichresultsin

AuditoryPhonetics

Fromthewaysoundstravel:

howsoundstravelbylookingatthesoundsaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother,whichresultsinAcousticPhonetics.

2.VocalOrgans:

Initiatorofair-streamProducerofvoiceResonatingcavities

3.Voicing/voiced:

[+voiced]

Whenvocalcordsaretogether,theairstreamforcesitswaythroughtocausetheirvibration.AfeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish

4.Voiceless:

[-voiced]

Whenthevocalcordsareapart,airgoesthroughwithoutcausingvibration.

Describingconsonants

PlacesofArticulation

Bilabials:

bpm

Labiodental:

fv

Dental:

θð

Alveolars:

tdsznlr

Palato-alveolars:

tFdV

Palatal:

j

Velars:

kgN

Glottals:

h

MannersofArticulation

Stops

Airflowiscompletelycutoffatcertainplace.In[t]and[d],thismeansthatthereisnoairflowatallforthedurationofthestop.In[n],thereisnoairflowthroughthemouth,butthereisstillairflowthroughthenose.

nasalstops---nasals:

mn

oralstops---plosivespb;td;kg

ThefricativesofEnglishare[f],[v],[θ],[ð],[s],[z],[ʃ],and[ʒ].

TheapproximantsofEnglishare[w],[j],[r],and[l].

Anaffricateisasinglesoundcomposedofastopportionandafricativeportion.In[tʃ],theperiodofturbulentairstreamfollowingthestopportionisthesameasthefricative[ʃ].English[dʒ]isanaffricatelike[tʃ],butvoiced

Soundswhichinvolveairflowaroundthesideofthetonguearecalledlaterals.

MonophthongsDiphthongs

PhoneticTranscription

amethodofwritingdownspeechinasystematicandconsistentway.

IPA:

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet

Broadtranscription

Onethatonlytakesaccountofthesounddifferencesthatareimportanttodistinguishwordsfromeachotherinalanguage.

Abroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.

Narrowtranscription

Anarrowtranscriptionattemptstorepresentmoreorlessaccuratelythewayinwhichaparticularspeakerpronounceshiswords.Anarrowtranscriptionisatranscriptionwithlettersymbolstogetherwithdiacritics

Phonology

Definition:

Aninventoryofdistinctivesoundsandtheirfeatures,andruleswhichspecifyhowsoundsinteractwitheachother（soundpatterns）.

Comparison:

Phonologyandphonetics

Phoneme

Theamazingdiscoveryisthatpeoplesystematicallyignorecertainpropertiesofsounds.Theyperceivetwodifferentsoundsasthesamesound.Suchmeaning-distinguishingsoundsarephonemes。

Allophone

Eachofthevariantsofthatsoundiscalledanallophone.

FindingPhonemes

minimalpairs

Apairofwordsthathavedifferentmeaningsandwhichdifferinonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Sincethedifferencebetweenthetwosoundsismeaningful,thewordsmustbestoreddifferentlyinmemory.Thusthedifferenceinsoundsissignificant,andsothetwosoundsmustbothbephonemes.

Thephoneticcontext（orframe）[b_t]canbeusedtofindminimalpairsformanyEnglishvowels:

[bit]（"beat"）/i/

[bɪt]（"bit"）/ɪ/

[bet]（"bait"）/e/

[bɛt]（"bet"）/ɛ/

[bæt]（"bat"）/æ/

[but]（"boot"）/u/

[bot]（"boat"）/o/

[bɔt]（"bought"）/ɔ/（Youmayhave[ɑ]here.）

[bʌt]（"but"）/ʌ/

Complementarydistribution

The"ph"soundispronouncedaswhenitoccursatthebeginningoftheword.

The"p﹃"soundispronouncedaswhenitoccursattheendoftheword.

The“p”soundispronouncedafters.

Thesedifferentpronunciationsneverappearatthesameplaceinwords,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

Freevariation

Twosoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,i.e.thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentword.

E.g.Economics[i][e]ration[ei][A]

2.Somerulesofphonology

2.1Sequentialrule

kwiltkbli

Degreeofsonority（obstructionofairflow）

Plosives（affricative）-

Fricatives

Nasals

Approximants

Vowels

2.2Assimilationrules:

Twophonesbecomesimilarby“copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme.

2.3Deletionrule

DoingPhonologyProblems

Thebasicsteps:

1.Lookforminimalpairs（Ifyes,thenbothsoundsarephonemes）

2.Lookforalternationsinthepronunciationofonemorpheme

3.Listtheenvironmentsforthedifferentpronunciations

4.Findthepartoftheenvironmentthatpredictsthechangeinpronunciation

5.Makeamindandmouthdiagram

6.Writetherule（inwords,theninsymbols）

7.Checktoseethattheruleworks

3Lexicon&Morphology

1.Whatisword?

Potentialpause（aphysicallydefinableunit）

e.g.Iwillgotoschool.I’llgotoschool.

Lexeme（thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms）词位

e.g.talk,talks,talked,talking;girl,girls,girl’s

Oneofthegrammaticalunits（Systemic-functionalgrammar）

SentenceClauseWordgroupWordMorpheme

Aminimumfreeform

（LeonardBloomfield–Americanstructuralist）

Itmeansthatawordisthesmallestunitwhichcanconstituteacompleteidea.

e.g.--Whocamein?

--Mary

Internalstabilityanduninterruptability&positionalmobility

e.g.Thestoryisinteresting.

2.ClassificationsofWords

3.Morphology（Itstudiestheinternalstructureofaword）:

inflectionalandlexicalmorphology

Morpheme

Thesmallestmeaningfulunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritisgrammaticalorlexical.

Typ