英语语言学笔记1.docx

英语语言学笔记1.docx

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英语语言学笔记1

ChapterIIntroduction

1.1Whystudylanguage?

ØLanguageisanintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity.（details）

ØYetweknowlittleorevenhaveevenwrongideasaboutlanguage.

·Wheredoeslanguagecomefrom?

How?

When?

·Whyislanguagehuman-specific?

·Whycanachildlearnhis/hermothertongueinashortperiodoftime?

·Howcanwesayonethingbutmeananother?

·Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.

·Thefunctionoflanguageistoexchangeinformation

ØThesubjectoflanguageisintriguingandusefulformanypracticalreasons.

Languagecanbeusedasawayoffindingout:

·Howthebrainworks.

·Howchildrenlearnlanguage.

·Whypeopleusedifferentvarietiesoflanguage.

·Whattheroleoflanguageisindifferentcultures,etc.

1.2Language

1.2.1Definition

ØDifferentsensesof“language”:

·Badlanguage:

expressions

·Shakespeare’slanguage:

idiolect

·Businesslanguage:

variety

·TheEnglishlanguage:

abstractsystem

·Astudentoflanguage:

universalpropertiesofallspeech/writingsystems

ØDefinitionoflanguageasaresearchsubject（inageneralandabstractsense）:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Whateverthedefinitionoflanguage,itmustincludedirectly,orbycloseimplication,somemainattributesoflanguageasfollows:

·Languageissystematic.（Elementsarecombinedaccordingtorules.）

·Languageisarbitrary.（Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.）

·Languageisbasicallyvocal—theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.

·Languageissymbolic.Itismeaninglessbyitself.

·Languageishuman-specific—birdsongsandbeedances

·Languageiscommunicative.Thatisitsmajorfunction

Questionsfordiscussion:

1.Givemoresensesof“language”

（Computerlanguage,bodylanguage,signlanguage）

1.2.2Origin（ofspeech）

ØThedivinetheory:

endowedbyGod（TheTowerofBabel）

ØThebow-wowtheory:

imitativeofanimalcalls（mew,hiss）

ØThepooh-poohtheory:

instinctivecriesoutofintenseemotions（interjections）

ØTheding-dongtheory:

naturalresonancewhenstruck（ding-dong,bang）

ØTheyo-he-yotheory:

rhythmicgruntswhenworkingtogether（heave,haul）

Summary:

Languageoriginatedfromourexperienceoftheexternalandinternalworld,andourcontactwithothers.Itevolveswithinspecifichistorical,socialandculturalcontexts.

Questionsfordiscussion:

1.Willthedaycomewhenalllanguagesbecomeone?

2.Whatispossiblythefirstlanguage?

3.Wheredoyouthinklanguagecamefrom?

1.2.3Designfeatures

Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesoflanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.

ØArbitrariness:

nonaturalrelationshipbetweenmeaningandform.

“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”

ØDuality:

twohierarchicalstructuresofsoundsandwords

Soundsaresecondary（meaningless）;wordsareprimary（meaningful）.

ØCreativity:

productivity,infiniteuseoffinitemeans

Thisanswerswhywecanunderstand/producesentencesneverheardbefore.

ØDisplacement:

stimulusfree（genereralizationandabstraction）

Itbenefitshumanwiththepowerforgeneralizationandabstraction.

Languageisfreefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandspace.

ØCulturaltransmission:

moreculturalthangenetic

ONEmorefeature:

ØInterchangeability:

bothaproducerandareceiver

1.2.4Functions

LinguiststalkabouttheFUNCTIONSoflanguageinanabstractsense.Theysummarizepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassifications.

ØSomebroadclassifications:

·.Jakobson（1960）:

referential（context）,emotive（addresser）,poetic（message）,conative（addressee）,phatic（contact）,meta-lingual（code）

·Hallidayearly:

instrumental,regulatory,representational,interactional,personal,heuristicandimaginative.

·Halliday（1994）:

ideational（logical）,interpersonal（social）andtextual（relevant）

ØSub-classificationwithreferencetoHalliday’smetafunctions（1994）

·Informative（ideational）:

toexpressthespeaker’sexperienceoftheexternalandinternalworld.

·Interpersonal:

toestablishandmaintainsocialrules

Performative:

toperformactions（directive）

Emotive（expressive）:

overlappedwithexpressionoftheinnerexperience

Phatic:

purelysocial/interpersonal

·TextualRecreational:

torecreate/playwithwords

Metalingual:

todescribelanguageitself

Questionsfordiscussion:

1.Whatdowedowiththefollowingexpressions?

Hello!

（Phatic）

Getoutofmyway!

（Directive）

Theearthrevolvesaroundthesun.（Informative）

Doyouknowhishobby?

（Interrogative）

Ihateher.（Expressive）

HowdoyoulikeJack?

（Evocative）

Iherebydeclarethemeetingopen.（Performative）

Tommy,DearFriend（Interpersonal）

Humor;rhyming;puns（Recreational）

WhatImeanis;inotherwords（Metalinguistic）

1.2.5Typology

1.3Linguistics

1.3.1Definition

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Asascience,itnowhasitsownsetofestablishedtheories,methodsandsub-branches.

1.3.2Scope

Division

Sub-division

Subject

Linguistics:

thescientificstudyoflanguage

Micro-linguistics:

thestudyoflanguageinitself

（core）

Phonetics

Sounds/phone

Phonology

System/phoneme

Morphology

Wordformation

Syntax

Sentencestructure

Semantics

Textualmeaning

Pragmatics

Contextualmeaning

Macro-linguistics:

thestudyoflanguageinrelationtootherdisciplines（periphery）

Psycholinguistics

Mind

Sociolinguistics

Society

Anthropologicallinguistics

Humanhistory

Computationallinguistics

Computer

Appliedlinguistics

Education

Comparativelinguistics

Languages

Neurolinguistics

Brain

Cognitivelinguistics

Cognition

Table1theScopeofGeneralLinguistics

Questionsfordiscussion:

1.Inwhatwayscanforeignlanguagelearnersbenefitfromlinguistics?

2.Whatotherfieldshavecloserelationswiththescienceoflanguage?

1.3.3Importantdistinctions

ØDescriptivevs.prescriptive:

be/shouldbe

Thisdistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.

ØSynchronicvs.diachronic:

usuallycurrent/historical

Theformertakesafixedinstant,usuallythepresent,asitspointofobservation;thelatterstudiesalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.

ØSpeechvs.writing:

Speechisprimaryoverwriting,whichinturngiveslanguagenewscopeanduses.

ØLanguevs.parole:

abstract/socialrulesandconcrete/personaluse

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics（utterances）aslangueandparole.

ØCompetencevs.performance:

idealknowledgeandactualuse

Alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticcompetence.Andperformancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations（Chomsky）

Saussure’sdistinctionissociological,whileChomsky’sispsychological.

ØTraditionalgrammarvs.modernlinguistics:

·approach:

Prescriptivevs.descriptive

·emphasis:

Writingvs.speech

·framework:

with/forauniversalframework

（TheendofChapterI）

ChapterⅡSpeechSounds

2.1Speechsound

ØSpeechsounds:

meaningfulsoundsinhumanlinguisticcommunication

ØRelatedlinguisticsbranches:

phoneticsandphonology

Phoneticsandphonologyarebothconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage—speechsounds.Thedistinctionbetweenthetwofieldsisasfollows:

phoneticsdealsprimarilywithallthespeechsoundsinallhumanlanguages,includingthewayinwhichtheyareproduced,transmitted,andperceived;whilephonologydealsmorewiththeorganizationofspeechsoundsintosoundsystemsofdifferentlanguages.

2.2Phonetics

2.2.1Definition:

thestudyofspeechsoundsastheyare,namelytheirproduction,transmissionandperception.

2.2.2Branches

SpeechSpeech

Productionspeechtransmissionperception

Figure1Theprocessofspeechtransmission

Aspeechsoundisproducedbyaspeakerandtransmittedtoandreceivedbyalistener.Thisisathree-stepprocess---production（articulation）,transmission,andperception.Thusthestudyfallsintothreemainareas:

articulatoryphonetics,acousticphoneticsandauditoryphonetics.

2.2.3Phoneticproduction--speech（vocal）organs

Lips,teeth,tongue（tip,blade,front,back,root）teethridge（alveolus）,hardpalate,softpalate（velum）,uvula,pharynx,larynx,vocalfolds（cords）,trachea（windpipe）,lung.

1上唇；2上齿；3上齿背；4上齿龈；5硬腭；6软腭；7悬雍垂；8鼻腔；9咽部；10声带；11下唇；12舌尖；13舌前；14口腔；15舌中；16舌后。

（此图参照了DavidCrystal，TheCambridgeEncyclopediaofLanguage，p157，外语教学与研究出版社，北京，2002）

Figure2Speechorgans

Speechorgans

（Articulatoryapparatus）

Oralcavity（mouth）:

tongue（tip,blade,back,front,root）

teeth（upper,lower,ridge/alveolus）

lips（upper,lower）

uvula,palate（soft/velum,hard）

Nasalcavity（nose）:

nose

Pharyngealcavity（throat）:

Larynx（vocalcords/folds）andpharynx

Others:

Lung,trachea（windpipe）

Table2Speechorgans

清辅音

元音

非鼻音浊辅音

voiceless

voiced

Pharynx

apart

close

closed

Larynx

Trachea

Lung

initiatorofairstream

Oralcavity

Nasalcavity

Pharyngealcavity（throat）

鼻音

注：

organairstreamvocalcordsobstruction

Figure3Theflowofairstreaminspeechproduction

2.2.4Phonetictranscription

ØDivergencebetweensounds/pronunciationandsymbols/spelling（necessity）

Reasons:

moresoundsthansymbols,changesofsounds,borrowedwords

ØInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）

·Historyanddevelopment:

Theideaproposed（1886）,thefirstversionpublished（1888）,InternationalPhoneticAssociationknown（1897）,rudimentalsystemofIPA（1920s）,thelatestversionrevised（1993）,updatedtwice（1996,2005）.

·Mainprinciple