7外文资料翻译.docx

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7外文资料翻译

InstituteofDevelompmentStudies,1999,12

（2）:

1-8.

ACommodityChainsofFrameworkforAnalyzingGlobalIndustries

GaryGereffi

DukeUniversity

Abstrast:

Inthispaper,wefouceonthe"producer-driven"and"buyer-driven"globalcommoditychains,whichisunderthedevelopmentofindustrialandcommercialcapital.Andthenanalyzetheirfeaturesandtherelationshipwithdevelopmentstrategies.

Keywords:

Globalization;CommodityChains;developmentstrategies

Background

Inglobalcapitalism,economicactivityisnotonlyinternationalinscope,itisalsoglobalinorganization."Internationalization"referstothegeographicspreadofeconomicactivitiesacrossnationalboundaries.Assuch,itisnotanewphenomenon.Indeed,ithasbeenaprominentfeatureoftheworldeconomysinceatleasttheseventeenthcenturywhencolonialempiresbegantocarveuptheglobeinsearchofrawmaterialsandnewmarketsfortheirmanufacturedexports."Globalization"ismuchmorerecentthaninternationalizationbecauseitimpliesfunctionalintegrationbetweeninternationallydispersedactivities（Dicken,1998:

5）.

Typesofglobalization

Industrialandcommercialcapitalhavepromotedglobalizationbyestablishingtwodistincttypesofinternationaleconomicnetworks,whichcanbecalled"producer-driven"and"buyer-driven"globalcommoditychains,respectively（Gereffi,1994;1999）.Acommoditychainreferstothewholerangeofactivitiesinvolvedinthedesign,production,andmarketingofaproduct（seeGereffiandKorzeniewicz,1994foranoverviewofthisframework）.Producer-drivencommoditychainsarethoseinwhichlarge,usuallytransnational,manufacturersplaythecentralrolesincoordinatingproductionnetworks（includingtheirbackwardandforwardlinkages）.Thisischaracteristicofcapital-andtechnology-intensiveindustriessuchasautomobiles,aircraft,computers,semiconductors,andheavymachinery.Theautomobileindustryoffersaclassicillustrationofaproducer-drivenchain,withmultilayeredproductionsystemsthatinvolvethousandsoffirms（includingparents,subsidiaries,andsubcontractors）.Inthe1980s,theaverageJapaneseautomaker'sproductionsystem,forexample,contained170first-tier,4,700second-tier,and31,600third-tiersubcontractors（Hill1989:

466）.FloridaandKenney（1991）foundthatJapaneseautomobilemanufacturersactuallyreconstitutedmanyaspectsoftheirhome-countrysuppliernetworksinNorthAmerica.Doner（1991）extendedthisframeworktohighlightthecomplexforcesthatdriveJapaneseautomakerstocreateregionalproductionschemesforthesupplyofautopartsinahalf-dozennationsinEastandSoutheastAsia.Henderson（1989）andBorrus（1997）alsosupportthenotionthatproducer-drivencommoditychainshaveestablishedanEastAsiandivisionoflaborintheirstudiesoftheinternationalizationoftheU.S.andJapanesesemiconductorindustries.

Buyer-drivencommoditychainsrefertothoseindustriesinwhichlargeretailers,marketers,andbrandedmanufacturersplaythepivotalrolesinsettingupdecentralizedproductionnetworksinavarietyofexportingcountries,typicallylocatedinthethirdworld.Thispatternoftrade-ledindustrializationhasbecomecommoninlabor-intensive,consumergoodsindustriessuchasgarments,footwear,toys,housewares,consumerelectronics,andavarietyofhandicrafts.Productionisgenerallycarriedoutbytierednetworksofthirdworldcontractorsthatmakefinishedgoodsforforeignbuyers.Thespecificationsaresuppliedbythelargeretailersormarketersthatorderthegoods.

Features

Oneofthemaincharacteristicsofthefirmsthatfitthebuyer-drivenmodel,includingretailerslikeWal-Mart,SearsRoebuck,andJ.C.Penney,athleticfootwearcompanieslikeNikeandReebok,andfashion-orientedapparelcompanieslikeLizClaiborneandTheLimited,isthatthesecompaniesdesignand/ormarket—butdonotmake—thebrandedproductstheyorder.Theyarepartofanewbreedof"manufacturerswithoutfactories"thatseparatethephysicalproductionofgoodsfromthedesignandmarketingstagesoftheproductionprocess.Profitsinbuyer-drivenchainsderivenotfromscale,volume,andtechnologicaladvancesasinproducer-drivenchains,butratherfromuniquecombinationsofhigh-valueresearch,design,sales,marketing,andfinancialservicesthatallowtheretailers,designers,andmarketerstoactasstrategicbrokersinlinkingoverseasfactoriesandtraderswithevolvingproductnichesintheirmainconsumermarkets（Gereffi,1994）.

Profitabilityisgreatestintherelativelyconcentratedsegmentsofglobalcommoditychainscharacterizedbyhighbarrierstotheentryofnewfirms.Inproducer-drivenchains,manufacturersmakingadvancedproductslikeaircraft,automobiles,andcomputersarethekeyeconomicagentsnotonlyintermsoftheirearnings,butalsointheirabilitytoexertcontroloverbackwardlinkageswithrawmaterialandcomponentsuppliers,andforwardlinkagesintodistributionandretailing.Theleadfirmsinproducer-drivenchainsusuallybelongtoglobaloligopolies.Buyer-drivencommoditychains,bycontrast,arecharacterizedbyhighlycompetitiveandgloballydecentralizedfactorysystems.Thecompaniesthatdevelopandsellbrand-namedproductsexertsubstantialcontroloverhow,when,andwheremanufacturingwilltakeplace,andhowmuchprofitaccruesateachstageofthechain.Thus,whereasproducer-drivencommoditychainsarecontrolledbylargemanufacturersatthepointofproduction,themainleverageinbuyer-drivenindustriesisexercisedbyretailersandmarketersatthedistributionandretailendofthechain.

Themainfeaturesofproducer-drivenandbuyer-drivencommoditychainsarehighlightedinTable1.Producer-drivenandbuyer-drivenchainsarerootedindistinctindustrialsectors,theyareledbydifferenttypesoftransnationalcapital（industrialandcommercial,respectively）,andtheyvaryintheircorecompetencies（atthefirmlevel）andtheirentrybarriers（atthesectorallevel）.Thefinishedgoodsinproducer-drivenchainstendtobesuppliedbycorecountrytransnationals,whilethegoodsinbuyer-drivenchainsaregenerallymadebylocallyownedfirmsindevelopingcountries.Whereastransnationalcorporationsestablishinvestment-basedverticalnetworks,theretailers,designers,andtradingcompaniesinbuyer-drivenchainssetupandcoordinatetrade-basedhorizontalnetworks.

MainCharacteristicsofProducer-DrivenandBuyer-Driven

GlobalCommodityChains

Producter-DrivenCommodityChain

Buyer-DrivenCommodityChain

DriversofGlobalcommodity

IndustrialCapital

CommercialCapital

CoreCompetencies

Research&Development;Production

Design;Marketing

BarriierstoEntry

EconomiesofScale

EconomiesofScope

EconomicsSectors

ConsumerDurables;IntermediateGoods;CapitalGoods

ConsumerNondurables

TypicalIndustries

Automobiles;Computers;Aircraft

Apparel;Footwear;Toys

OwnshipofManufacturingFirms

TransnationalFirms

LocalFirms,predominantlyindevelopingcountries

MainNetworkLinks

Investment-based

Trade-based

PredominantNetworkStucture

Vertical

Horizontal

Commoditychainsanddevelopmentstrategies

Thereisanaffinitybetweencommoditychainsanddevelopmentstrategies.Theimport-substitutingindustrialization（ISI）developmentstrategy,whichprevailedinLatinAmericafornearlyfivedecadesuntilthe1970s,wasbasedonproducer-drivencommoditychains.Transnationalcorporations,whichhaveactivelytappedLatinAmerica'soil,mineral,andagriculturalresourcessincethenineteenthcentury,wereinvitedtoestablishmoreadvancedmanufacturingindustriesintheregion,beginningwithautomobileassemblyplantsinlargecountrieslikeMexico,Brazil,andArgentinainthe1920s.Bythe1950sand1960s,arangeofadvancedISIfactorieswerespreadthroughouttheregionindiverseindustriessuchaspetrochemicals,pharmaceuticals,automobiles,electricalandnon-electricalmachinery,andcomputers（GereffiandWyman,1990）.Outputwasmainlydestinedforthedomesticmarket,althoughinthe1970smoreattentionwasgiventomanufacturedexportstooffsetthecostlyimportbillsassociatedwithISIdeepening.Buyer-drivencommoditychains,bycontrast,havebeenvirtuallyignoredinLatinAmericasincethetransnationalfirmsthatestablishedISIwereprimarilyinterestedinLatinAmerica'sdomesticmarkets,notexports.ThisallowedthelocalexportersintheEastAsianNIEsthatpursuedexport-orientedindustrialization（EOI）togainthelion'sshareofU.S.andEuropeanmarketsfortheprofitableconsumergoodsthatareonlysuppliedviabuyer-drivenchains.

Bothbuyer-drivenandproducer-drivencommoditychainsareusefulinanalyzingandevaluatingglobalindustries.Aswithtraditionalsupply-chainperspectives,thecommoditychainsframeworkisbasedontheflowofgoodsinvolvedintheproductionanddistributionofapparelproducts.However,theglobalcommoditychainsapproachdiffersinatleastfourrespectsfromrelatedconcepts,suchasthe"pipeline"（AAMA,1984）or"valuechain"（Porter1990）approaches.Theglobalcommoditychainframework:

1）incorporatesanexplicitinternationaldimensionintotheanalysis;

2）focusesonthepowerexercisedbytheleadfirmsindifferentsegmentsofthecommoditychain,anditillustrateshowpowershiftsovertime;

3）viewsthecoordinationoftheentirechainasakeysourceofcompetitiveadvantagethatrequiresusingnetworksasastrategicasset;and

4）looksatorganizationallearningasoneofthecriticalmechanismsbywhichfirmstrytoimproveorconsolidatetheirpositionswithinthechain.

Oneofthemajorhypothesesoftheglobalcommoditychainsapproachisthatdevelopmentrequire